Chapter 3 Knowledge Check

Chapter 3

Quiz yourself using the following chapter review questions to check how well you can recall the material.

Review Questions

1. True or false: Criminology is solely the study of criminal behavior and does not influence policymaking in the administration of justice.
2. How does the effectiveness of deterrence depend on the perception of punishment and rational decision-making?
   1. The severity of punishment alone is enough to deter all criminal behavior.
   2. Deterrence is most effective when the likelihood of getting caught is perceived as high.
   3. All individuals, including juveniles and those with mental illness, make rational choices when considering crime.
   4. Research has conclusively proven that deterrence is the most effective crime prevention strategy.
3. The criminal justice philosophy that focuses on punishing offenders to ensure they receive a penalty proportionate to their crime, based on the idea of “just deserts,” is known as ________.
4. What is the primary purpose of criminological theories?
   1. To explain the causes of crime and identify risk factors for criminal behavior.
   2. To provide absolute answers about why crime occurs.
   3. To replace the need for policy decisions by lawmakers.
   4. To ensure all criminologists agree on the causes of criminal behavior.
5. Which of the following best explains the demonological theory of criminality that influenced early criminological thought?
   1. Crime was seen as a violation of social contracts, requiring rational legal responses.
   2. Criminal behavior was believed to result from external supernatural forces influencing individuals.
   3. Criminal acts were viewed as choices made by rational individuals seeking to maximize personal gain.
   4. Crime was understood as a consequence of economic inequality and class struggles.
6. True or false: According to Beccaria, the severity of a crime should be determined by its impact on society, and punishment should be proportional to the crime, not based on retribution or retaliation.
7. According to criminological theory, individuals engage in criminal behavior when three factors converge: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and a lack of capable guardianship. This is the foundation of ________.
8. True or false: Strain Theory suggests that individuals engage in criminal behavior when they experience a disconnect between societal goals and the means available to achieve them, leading to frustration and alternative, often illicit, pathways to success.
9. When societal norms break down, weaken, or become unclear due to rapid social change or a lack of regulatory guidance, individuals may experience a state of ________, which can lead to increased deviant behavior and crime.
10. ________ theories suggest that crime is a product of subcultural values, where individuals conform to the values and norms of their subculture, even when those values conflict with mainstream society.
11. Which of the following are key criticisms and dangers associated with positivist criminology?
    1. Determinism and Reductionism
    2. Ethical Concerns and Discrimination
    3. Neglect of Social and Structural Factors
    4. All of the above
12. True or false. Biological and psychological positivism has been criticized for reinforcing racial stereotypes, justifying eugenics policies, and neglecting social and environmental factors that contribute to criminal behavior.
13. The Burgess model of criminology has been criticized for its limited applicability in complex urban settings because it tends to overlook the role of important ________ factors in shaping crime patterns, instead focusing too heavily on ethnic or racial geographic distribution.
14. True or false. White-collar crime, transnational crime, organized crime, and enterprise crime are distinct categories of criminal activity with no overlap in methods, actors, or financial motivations.
15. Criminologists must adhere to ethical standards when conducting research or working within the criminal justice system. Which of the following represents a significant ethical concern in criminology?
    1. Bias and discrimination in research and policy
    2. Deception in research studies and publications
    3. The misuse of criminological research
    4. All of the above

Answer Key

1. False. Criminology is not only the study of crime and criminal behavior but also plays a crucial role in shaping policies related to crime prevention, legal responses, and justice administration. Research in criminology helps identify trends, develop effective crime prevention strategies, and inform policies that impact communities on a local, national, and even global scale.
2. Deterrence is most effective when the likelihood of getting caught is perceived as high. Research on deterrence suggests that individuals are more likely to refrain from criminal activity when they believe there is a strong chance of being caught. The threat of punishment must be realistic, and enforcement must be visible for deterrence to work effectively.
3. Retribution. Retribution is the philosophy that emphasizes punishment proportional to the offense. It is based on the concept of “just deserts,” meaning that offenders should suffer consequences that fit the severity of their crimes. This approach focuses on moral accountability rather than preventing future crime.
4. To explain the causes of crime and identify risk factors for criminal behavior. Criminological theories aim to explain why certain individuals commit crimes and identify risk factors that contribute to criminal behavior. This knowledge helps criminologists guide policymakers in developing crime prevention and intervention strategies.
5. Criminal behavior was believed to result from external supernatural forces influencing individuals. The demonological theory of criminality suggested that criminal behavior was caused by supernatural forces or demonic possession. This perspective dominated early criminological thought, influencing medieval judicial practices such as ordeals by fire and water.
6. True. Beccaria emphasized that the severity of a crime should be judged by its impact on society, and the punishment should be proportional to the crime committed. He argued against retributive punishment, focusing instead on fairness and proportionality.
7. Routine Activity Theory. Routine Activity Theory suggests that crime occurs when three factors converge: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and a lack of capable guardianship. The theory emphasizes that crime is not necessarily driven by the offender’s choice but by the availability of opportunities that exist in routine activities.
8. True. Strain theory, developed by Robert Merton, proposes that when individuals face obstacles in achieving culturally approved goals (such as financial success) through socially acceptable means (like education and employment), they may turn to crime as an alternative way to achieve these goals. This theory highlights how societal pressures and structural inequalities can contribute to criminal behavior.
9. Anomie. Anomie is a concept developed by Émile Durkheim, referring to a state of normlessness where traditional social norms fail to regulate individuals’ behaviors, often leading to social instability and deviance.
10. Cultural deviance. Cultural deviance theories propose that certain subcultures develop norms and values that justify or even encourage deviant behavior, leading individuals within these groups to engage in crime as a learned response to their environment.
11. All of the above. Each of these criticisms reflects significant concerns with positivist criminology. The theory’s deterministic nature, its application in fostering racist ideologies (such as those seen in Nazi Germany), and its neglect of social and structural factors all highlight the dangers of applying this theory uncritically. These issues reinforce the ethical and scientific limitations of positivism, emphasizing the need for a more holistic and just approach to criminological theory.
12. True. Biological and psychological positivism has faced significant criticism for its historical role in reinforcing racial stereotypes and justifying harmful practices, such as eugenics, which aimed to eliminate undesirable traits from the gene pool. These theories have also been criticized for focusing narrowly on individual biological or psychological factors, thus ignoring the broader social and environmental factors, such as poverty, inequality, and systemic injustice, that play a critical role in shaping criminal behavior. This limited view has perpetuated discrimination, especially targeting marginalized communities.
13. Socio-economic. The Burgess model has been challenged because it does not adequately account for many socio-economic conditions such as employment opportunities and access to resources. Instead, critics argue that it places too much emphasis on ethnic and racial geographic distribution, which can lead to misleading conclusions about crime causation and urban development. Socio-economic factors are often stronger predictors of crime than race or ethnicity alone.
14. False. While these categories of crime have unique characteristics, they often overlap in significant ways.
15. All of the above. Each of these ethical concerns plays a critical role in shaping the responsibilities of criminologists. Ethical concerns in criminology extend beyond research methodology to broader issues of fairness, discrimination, and the responsible use of criminological knowledge. Bias in research and policy can perpetuate systemic injustices, deceptive practices in studies and publications can undermine public trust, and the misuse of research can lead to harmful policies. Addressing these concerns is essential to maintaining ethical standards, protecting vulnerable populations, and ensuring that criminology serves the interests of justice rather than reinforcing inequality.