2.1 Introduction to Crime
Wesley B. Maier, PhD and Kadence C. Maier
Crime encompasses a wide array of behaviors that deviate from established norms and laws within a society. Understanding crime involves delving into the philosophical and sociological dimensions that shape its definition, prevalence, and legal consequences. It’s not just about examining its manifestations but also exploring the underlying motivations and repercussions on communities and society as a whole, which is crucial for understanding its multifaceted nature.
In the subsequent section, we will delve into various categories of crime that serve as a framework that allows us to organize and analyze the diverse range of offenses observed in society. By evaluating these categories, we aim to unravel the complexities of criminal behavior, shedding light on the underlying factors driving different types of offenses and their impact on individuals, communities, and the broader social fabric. Through this exploration, we strive to deepen our understanding of crime and its multifaceted nature, laying the groundwork for informed discussions and interventions aimed at addressing its root causes and consequences.
Crime Categories
Every year, millions of crimes occur across the U.S., spanning a wide spectrum from the gravest offenses such as murder, rape, or assault, to relatively minor transgressions like shoplifting, littering, or video piracy (Federal Bureau of Investigation [FBI], 2020b). Statistics and crime research play pivotal roles in elucidating crime patterns, addressing crime-related issues, and even unraveling the underlying dynamics of criminal behavior and social dynamics. However, before delving into crime measurements and statistics, it is imperative to establish a clear understanding of precisely what we are measuring and the parameters guiding our analyses.
Categorizing crime types into distinct classifications serves as a foundational tool for understanding the multifaceted nature of criminal behavior and its implications for society. Through this structured framework, stakeholders can develop more informed strategies to prevent crime, promote public safety, and foster social justice. Due to the broad range of crime types, each reflecting unique aspects of human behavior and societal dynamics, categorization becomes essential for effective analysis and understanding. From crimes of violence that threaten physical safety and wellbeing to offenses against public order that disrupt social harmony, and white-collar crimes that often involve sophisticated schemes targeting financial systems, the spectrum of criminal behavior is vast and multifaceted.
Categorization allows researchers, policymakers, and law enforcement agencies to organize this complexity into manageable frameworks, facilitating deeper insights into the underlying motivations, patterns, and consequences of criminal activity. By delineating distinct categories, we can identify common trends, disparities, and emerging threats within the realm of crime, enabling more targeted interventions and resource allocation.
In the subsequent section, we will explore how these categories—violent crimes, public order crimes, and white-collar crimes—serve as lenses through which to examine the diverse manifestations of criminal behavior, each offering unique insights into the complexities of crime in contemporary society. Through this exploration, we aim to deepen our understanding of the multifaceted nature of crime and lay the groundwork for informed discussions and interventions aimed at promoting safety, justice, and social well-being.
Violent Crimes
Violent crimes represent some of the most serious and devastatingly impactful offenses within the realm of criminal behavior. This category encompasses a range of actions that involve the use or threat of force against individuals or groups, often resulting in physical harm, injury, or death. Due to the severity of these types of offenses, violent offenders are often punished more harshly compared to non-violent criminal offenders.
Within the realm of violent crimes, we can delineate between two primary types: expressive and instrumental violence. Expressive violence is characterized by acts propelled by intense emotions like rage, anger, or frustration, resulting in impulsive and uncontrolled behavior. On the other hand, instrumental violence involves actions strategically aimed at achieving certain goals or objectives, such as bolstering the perpetrator’s financial or social standing. Consider, for instance, a scenario where an employee is assaulted and tied up during a bank robbery—an exemplification of instrumental violence. In this context, violence transcends being a mere outburst of emotion; instead, it becomes a calculated tool strategically employed to achieve a specific objective, namely, financial gain.
Violent crimes encompass a broad array of acts, each with distinct features and societal ramifications. To enhance research and analysis, violent crimes are often segmented into multiple categories based on similar characteristics, facilitating a more nuanced understanding of each type. For this section, we will use the following categories: gang-related crimes, intimate crimes, hate crimes, and homicide. Examining these groupings offers valuable insights into the intricate dynamics shaping such behavior, pinpointing common patterns, underlying motivations, and risk factors. Understanding these components is vital for developing effective strategies that prevent and address such offenses, while also promoting safety, justice, and resilience within communities affected by violent crime.
In the upcoming discussion, we will delve deeper into the subcategories of violent crime, examining their defining characteristics and societal impacts in greater depth. Through this exploration, we aim to foster a comprehensive understanding of the complexities of violent crime and inform evidence-based interventions that reduce its occurrence and mitigate its harm.
Gang-Related Violent Crimes
Among violent crimes, gang-related violence stands out as a distinctive subcategory that profoundly impacts communities worldwide. Gang-related violence encompasses a wide array of criminal activities perpetrated by organized groups, driven by a complexity of motivations such as territorial disputes, interpersonal conflicts among gang networks, drug trafficking, and other illicit enterprises.
Gang-related violence extends beyond mere criminal activities; it represents a subculture characterized by its own social norms, hierarchies, and codes of conduct (Anderson, 2000). Although gangs may form as a means of protection or survival within disadvantaged communities, their activities frequently extend beyond mere self-preservation, leading to significant social disruption and harm. These gangs often provide a sense of belonging and identity for marginalized individuals, drawing them into a cycle of violence and criminality. From street gangs in urban neighborhoods to organized crime syndicates operating across international borders, the extent and influence of gang-related violence are broad-spanning and multifaceted.
Territorial disputes lie at the heart of many gang-related conflicts, as rival groups vie for control over lucrative drug markets or other illicit activities. These disputes can escalate into acts of violence, including shootings, stabbings, or other forms of physical aggression, as gangs seek to assert dominance and protect their interests.
Interpersonal conflicts among gang members also contribute to the prevalence of gang-related violence. Disputes over perceived slights, betrayals, or challenges to authority within gang hierarchies can quickly escalate into violent confrontations. Another form of interpersonal conflict arises between rival gangs as they seek retribution for past offenses, often perpetuating cycles of retaliation and escalation, thus leading to a continuous cycle of violence.
In addition to the immediate physical threats posed by gang violence, such as shootings, stabbings, or assaults, gang activity also inflicts extensive consequences for the surrounding communities. Residents of these affected neighborhoods often experience heightened fear and insecurity, compounded by negative economic repercussions resulting from reduced property values and limited business opportunities in gang-controlled areas (Agnew & White, 1992; Ratcliffe & Taniguchi, 2008). Moreover, innocent bystanders, including children, may become unintended victims of gang-related shootings or other violent acts, further exacerbating the impact on community safety and cohesion. Additionally, the involvement of gangs in drug trafficking and other criminal enterprises adds another layer of complexity to gang-related violence. The pursuit of profit and power compels gangs to engage in illegal activities, fueling violence and perpetuating social instability within communities.
The National Youth Gang Survey
Understanding the dynamics of gang-related violence is crucial for devising effective strategies to combat this pervasive societal issue. The national youth gang survey (NYGS) serves as a pivotal resource for policymakers, law enforcement agencies, researchers, and community organizations dedicated to addressing gang-related challenges. Its comprehensive data and analysis greatly contribute to informing evidence-based strategies aimed at reducing gang violence and improving community safety.
The nygs collects information on the number of gangs, gang members, and gang-related crimes reported in different regions. By tracking these statistics over time, it assists law enforcement agencies, policymakers, and researchers in identifying areas with high gang activity and allocating resources accordingly (National Gang Center, n.d.). Moreover, the NYGS examines various aspects of gang involvement, including demographics of gang members, gang structure, recruitment methods, and the types of criminal activities associated with gangs. This detailed analysis provides valuable insights into the underlying factors contributing to gang formation and violence.
Additionally, the NYGS plays a crucial role in evaluating the effectiveness of gang prevention and intervention programs. By assessing changes in gang-related metrics before and after the implementation of such initiatives, researchers can determine which strategies are most successful in reducing gang activity and violence. Overall, the National Youth Gang Survey is an indispensable tool in the ongoing efforts to address and mitigate the impact of gang-related violence in communities across the U.S.
Intimate Crimes
Intimate partner violence encompasses a range of abusive behaviors that can occur within romantic or familial relationships, as well as interactions with acquaintances or relative strangers. This form of violence extends beyond physical harm to include emotional and psychological abuse, often leaving lasting scars on victims and survivors.
Within intimate relationships, abuse can take various forms, including physical violence such as hitting, kicking, or choking, as well as emotional manipulation, coercion, and control. Both physical abuse and emotional abuse are often characterized by patterns of power and control, where perpetrators seek to dominate and intimidate their partners through threats, isolation, and manipulation.
Sexual abuse represents one form of intimate violent crime that occurs within both intimate and non-intimate relationships. These acts of violence violate the bodily autonomy and consent of the victim, causing profound physical and psychological harm. Rape, in particular, is a deeply traumatic experience that involves non-consensual sexual intercourse or penetration, perpetrated by a partner, acquaintance, or relative stranger. Victims of sexual violence often face significant physical, emotional, and social consequences, including post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and social stigmatization.
In addition to violence perpetrated by romantic partners, intimate violence can also occur within familial relationships, such as parent-child or sibling relationships. In these instances, child abuse may manifest as neglect, emotional manipulation, or physical violence, further complicating the dynamics of power and control within the family unit.
Measuring intimate violent crimes poses unique challenges due to underreporting, victim reluctance to disclose abuse, and certain cultural beliefs that normalize or condone abusive behavior within intimate relationships (Hien & Ruglass, 2009). However, efforts such as victimization surveys, forensic examinations, and specialized law enforcement units dedicated to domestic violence and sexual assault play crucial roles in gathering data and providing support to victims. For additional data on intimate partner violence, see the Office for Victims of Crime fact sheet.
Hate Crimes
Hate crimes represent a particularly insidious form of violence motivated by prejudice or bias against specific groups based on immutable characteristics such as race, religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or gender identity. These crimes are not only attacks on individual victims but also deliberate assaults on the very fabric of diversity and inclusion within society.
Crimes motivated by hate can take various forms, ranging from verbal harassment and physical assault to vandalism and even homicide. Minority group members are often targeted simply because of who they are, leading to a profound sense of fear, vulnerability, and alienation within affected communities.
The impact of hate crimes extends far beyond the immediate victims, reverberating throughout entire communities and exacerbating preexisting social divisions. By instilling fear and intimidation, perpetrators aim to erode the sense of safety and belonging that is fundamental to the well-being of all individuals within their communities.
Addressing hate crimes requires a multifaceted approach that includes robust legal protections, proactive law enforcement efforts, and community-based initiatives aimed at promoting tolerance and understanding. Legislation that enhances penalties for hate-motivated offenses sends a clear message that such behavior will not be tolerated in a civilized society.
Homicide
At the most extreme end of the spectrum, murder represents the ultimate act of violence, resulting in the intentional killing of another person. Whether motivated by personal vendettas, ideological beliefs, financial gain, or other factors, murder carries profound societal implications not only on the victim, their family, and friends, but often elicits strong emotional responses from communities and law enforcement authorities alike.
While many violent crimes can escalate to murder, the underlying motivation behind the crime often dictates the number of victims involved. In cases such as gang-related or intimate partner murders, the violence tends to be more targeted and localized, typically occurring within known or isolated areas. However, in instances of random acts of murder, such as mass shootings or serial killings, the violence is more indiscriminate and unpredictable, instilling widespread fear and anxiety within communities, despite the rarity of such occurrences.
There are three primary categories of multiple murders: serial murders, murder sprees, and mass murders. Serial murder, commonly known as the action of a serial killer, is often defined as the killing of three or more people by an individual over a period of time. Alternatively, other definitions may be utilized, such as “a single offender who killed at least two victims in separate events at different times” (Morton et al., 2014, p. 10). A murder spree, on the other hand, entails a series of killings committed within a relatively short time frame (e.g., days or weeks), often without a clear interval between each event and in different locations. Meanwhile, mass murder involves the deliberate killing of multiple victims in a single location and time frame, typically involving four or more individuals.
Interpreting murder rates accurately is a complex task that extends beyond merely counting the total number of murders in a specific area. The motivations and circumstances surrounding different types of multiple murder crimes vary significantly, profoundly affecting data interpretation. Therefore, examining the underlying causes of murders is equally essential for a comprehensive understanding of murder rates. For example, a region with high murder rates may not necessarily imply a high risk of being murdered. The interpretation and implications of the data vary substantially depending on whether the murders were the result of multiple random incidents at different times or the outcome of a family murder suicide. Moreover, the motives and behaviors of a serial murderer with four victims differ significantly from those of a father who tragically takes the lives of four of his own family members. Despite the same number of victims in both scenarios, the differences in motive, behavior, and timing greatly alter the interpretation of the data and impact on policy.
To gain an accurate understanding of murder rates and devise effective strategies and policies, it’s essential to thoroughly examine a variety of critical variables. By grasping these nuances, policymakers and stakeholders can craft tailored policies and strategies aimed at tackling the underlying causes of homicide-related violent crimes. Furthermore, they can implement interventions and preventive measures to effectively counter the various factors contributing to different types of multiple murders.
Public Order and Public Decency Crimes
Throughout history, societies have often prohibited or regulated behaviors perceived as conflicting with cultural traditions, customs, and values, as well as social norms. These behaviors are typically known as public order and public decency crimes. These types of crimes encompass a diverse array of offenses that threaten the social fabric and communal well-being of a society. These offenses often involve behaviors that disrupt public peace, infringe upon societal norms, or compromise public safety and security. Ranging from disorderly conduct and public intoxication to vandalism and indecent exposure, these crimes pose challenges to maintaining a harmonious and orderly environment for all members of the community.
Public order crimes encompass behaviors perceived to disrupt or threaten public order, peace, and safety in society. These offenses typically violate social norms, codes of conduct, or community standards, rather than directly harming individuals or their property. They were essentially criminalized due to the perception that they unreasonably encroach upon and pose risk to public spaces. Examples of public order crimes include disorderly conduct, public intoxication, loitering, vandalism, graffiti, prostitution, and public urination. The enforcement of public order laws aims to maintain social order, preserve community well-being, and promote public safety.
Public decency crimes are offenses that involve behaviors or actions considered indecent, offensive, or inappropriate in public settings. These crimes typically revolve around violations of societal norms, moral standards, or community values regarding public behavior and conduct. Examples of public decency crimes include acts viewed as being harmful to our moral values and the cohesion of society, including indecent exposure, public nudity, lewd behavior, offensive language or gestures, public urination or defecation, and engaging in sexual activities in public places. The enforcement of public decency laws aims to uphold community standards of decency, protect public morality, and maintain the comfort and dignity of individuals in public spaces.
While these two categories of crimes differ, they share numerous similar characteristics, notably their capacity to ignite contentious debates over whether they merit criminal sanctions. Understanding the nature, prevalence, and implications of such offenses is crucial for law enforcement agencies, policymakers, and community leaders in devising effective strategies for prevention, enforcement, and intervention. The following sections explore specific categories of public order and public decency crimes, examining their distinct components and societal impact.
Prostitution
Prostitution is a complex issue often classified as both a public order crime and a public decency crime due to its perceived disruption of societal norms and public morality. It involves individuals, typically referred to as sex workers or prostitutes, providing sexual acts to clients in exchange for money or goods, occurring in public spaces like street corners or private establishments such as brothels. In many societies, engaging in or soliciting sexual services for compensation is illegal and considered disruptive to public order and decency.
The impact of prostitution on society is multifaceted. Characterized by its clandestine nature and often occurring in secluded or urban areas, prostitution has significant social implications. From a public order perspective, solicitation of sexual services in public spaces may disrupt the peace and tranquility of neighborhoods, leading to concerns about safety and community well-being. Additionally, it can contribute to public safety concerns such as increased crime rates, including drug trafficking, violence, and property crimes in areas where it is prevalent, as well as raises the potential for violence against both sex workers and clients (Kelling & Wilson, 1982).
From a public decency standpoint, prostitution is often seen as immoral or indecent behavior that undermines societal values and norms regarding sexuality and relationships. It raises questions about the objectification of individuals, exploitation, and human dignity. The visibility of prostitution in public spaces can also evoke discomfort or offense among community members, particularly in areas frequented by families or children.
Furthermore, prostitution intersects with various social issues, amplifying its impact on society. It intertwines with poverty, substance abuse, human trafficking, and health matters, deepening its societal repercussions. Many individuals involved in prostitution belong to vulnerable populations, including marginalized women, LGBTQ+ individuals, and those facing economic disadvantages, who may turn to sex work as a means of survival (Dank et al., 2015). Sex workers, particularly those operating in clandestine or illegal settings, often encounter significant risks to their health, safety, and overall well-being. In addition, prostitution relates to broader public health concerns as it can facilitate the transmission of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and other health risks, presenting challenges for community health (World Health Organization, n.d.).
The impact of prostitution extends beyond immediate participants to affect broader societal attitudes and values. It can perpetuate harmful stereotypes and stigmas surrounding sexuality and gender roles. Furthermore, the normalization of prostitution in certain contexts may undermine efforts to promote gender equality and combat exploitation.
Efforts to address prostitution as a public order or public decency crime often entail a multifaceted approach involving law enforcement, social services, and community outreach. While implementing laws and regulations to deter and penalize the solicitation and purchase of sex is a common strategy, providing support services and exit strategies for individuals involved in prostitution is equally crucial.
Illegal Drug Use
The impact of illegal drug use extends far beyond its immediate participants, influencing broader societal attitudes and values, undermining societal norms, compromises public safety, and diminishes community well-being. Its detrimental effects reverberate throughout affected neighborhoods, challenging community safety, eroding social cohesion, and diminishing overall quality of life. Moreover, illegal drug use perpetuates damaging stereotypes and stigmas related to addiction, mental health, and socioeconomic status. Consequently, law enforcement agencies, policymakers, and communities face significant hurdles in their efforts to maintain order and uphold societal standards of conduct amidst the prevalence of illegal drug use.
The utilization and distribution of illegal drugs frequently result in behaviors that disturb public peace and safety, thus categorizing them as public order offenses. Drug-related crimes encompass activities such as trafficking, dealing, possession, and drug use in public spaces, alongside drug-related violence. These actions elevate public safety concerns by increasing crime rates, including instances of theft, assault, and property crimes (Stamm, 2020). Additionally, regions with high incidences of drug use often witness heightened levels of disorder, such as loitering, vandalism, littering, and other public disturbances. The presence of drug users in public spaces fosters an atmosphere of fear and unease, detrimentally impacting local businesses and community members. Consequently, law enforcement agencies frequently target drug-related offenses as part of their endeavors to uphold public order and safety.
Illegal drug use is often associated with behaviors deemed indecent or offensive in public settings, rendering it a public decency crime as well. The visibility of drug use in public spaces, such as parks, streets, or public transportation, can be disruptive, offensive, and distressing to members of the community, particularly in areas frequented by families, children, and tourists. Moreover, drug paraphernalia left in public places, such as needles and syringes, can pose health hazards and create an unsightly environment. Additionally, the visible presence of drug users in public spaces may contribute to a sense of discomfort and insecurity among residents, detracting from the overall sense of safety and well-being in the community.
Loitering and Vagrancy
Overall, loitering and vagrancy are considered public order and public decency crimes due to their perceived negative impact on public spaces, community safety, and social harmony. Loitering typically involves lingering or idling in a public place without a clear purpose, often associated with behaviors like congregating in groups, panhandling, or engaging in drug-related activities. This behavior can infringe on public order by creating an atmosphere of unease or discomfort among residents and visitors and disrupting the peace of public spaces. Additionally, loitering can be seen as a form of disorderly conduct that disrupts the peace and tranquility of public spaces, leading to potential conflicts or disturbances.
Vagrancy, on the other hand, refers to being homeless or without means of support, leading individuals to resort to begging or petty crimes for survival. This condition frequently entails actions such as sleeping in public spaces or participating in loitering, which are often perceived as disruptive and antisocial, thereby violating public order. Additionally, homeless individuals may engage in activities like public urination or defecation, which contravenes public decency and raises concerns about public safety and cleanliness, especially in urban areas with high rates of homelessness.
While laws and ordinances are often enacted to regulate loitering and vagrancy to maintain public order and uphold societal standards, there is debate about their enforcement, as they may disproportionately affect marginalized or vulnerable populations, such as the homeless or those struggling with mental illness or substance abuse issues (American Civil Liberties Union of California, 2021). As a result, efforts to address loitering and vagrancy should ideally involve a balance between public safety considerations and the protection of individual rights and dignity.
Economic Crimes
Economic crimes encompass a broad spectrum of illegal activities aimed at achieving financial gain through fraud, manipulation, or deceptive tactics, thereby causing financial harm to victims and eroding trust in economic systems. These offenses typically target individuals, businesses, or government entities and may involve practices such as embezzlement, money laundering, insider trading, bribery, and tax evasion. Given their potential to undermine financial institutions, market integrity, and public confidence, economic crimes represent a significant challenge for law enforcement agencies and regulatory bodies worldwide.
Larceny
Larceny is one type of economic crime that refers to the unauthorized taking and removal of another person’s property with the intent to permanently deprive the owner of that property. This type of theft crime encompasses the wrongful appropriation of goods or belongings without the owner’s consent. Typically, larceny entails physically removing property, such as shoplifting items from a store or stealing goods. However, it differs from robbery in that it does not involve the use or threat of force against the victim. Larceny can occur in various contexts, including theft from individuals, businesses, or even public spaces, and may involve a wide range of items, from tangible goods like money, electronics, or jewelry to intangible assets like intellectual property or confidential information. The severity of larceny charges and penalties varies depending on factors such as the value of the stolen property, jurisdictional laws, and the circumstances surrounding the theft.
Cybercrime
Cybercrime encompasses a vast array of illegal activities conducted through digital means, including but not limited to hacking, malware distribution, phishing, identity theft, and online fraud. While the motivations behind cybercrimes can vary widely, many of these activities ultimately have economic implications. For example, hackers may breach the security systems of financial institutions or businesses to access sensitive financial data, such as credit card numbers or bank account information, which they can then exploit for monetary gain through fraudulent transactions or selling the stolen data on the dark web. Similarly, cybercriminals may deploy ransomware attacks targeting individuals or organizations, encrypting their data and demanding payment in exchange for its release. Additionally, online fraud schemes, such as bogus investment opportunities or deceptive online marketplaces, can defraud victims of significant sums of money. In essence, while not all cybercrimes are explicitly motivated by economic gain, many of them ultimately result in financial losses for individuals, businesses, or even entire economies (Brando et al., 2022; Iftikhar, 2024).
White-Collar
White-collar crime encompasses financially motivated offenses perpetrated by individuals or organizations in positions of trust or authority. These non-violent crimes involve deceit, manipulation, or abuse of power for monetary gain and include activities such as fraud, embezzlement, insider trading, bribery, money laundering, and tax evasion. Perpetrators often leverage their knowledge of financial systems and regulations to carry out illicit activities, leading to significant financial losses and undermining the integrity of financial markets and institutions (Barnett, 2000). Detecting and prosecuting white-collar crimes can be challenging due to their complexity and sophisticated methods, trial costs, necessitating specialized investigative techniques and expertise.
Attributions
- Figure 2.2: Gun Money Crime Wooden Table Edited 2020 by Pat WilsonCZ75 is released under CC BY 2.0
- Figure 2.3: Unititled by Mohamed Hassan is released under CC0 Public Domain 1.0
- Figure 2.4: White powder sprinkled on a black background, behind money and a syringe with a drug by Marco Verch is released under CC BY 2.0
- Figure 2.5: Cliche Hacker and Binary Code by David Whelan is released under CC0 Public Domain 1.0
- Figure 2.6: https://netivist.org/debate/crime-statistics-rate, by netivist.org, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
Please look for related terms in the Glossary
Criminal acts that involve the intentional use of physical force or threat of force against another person or property, resulting in harm, injury, or death. Examples of violent crimes include assault, homicide, robbery, sexual assault, and domestic violence. These offenses often carry severe legal penalties due to the significant harm they cause to individuals and society.
Acts of aggression or harm that are primarily driven by emotional impulses, rather than tangible goals such as acquisition or self-defense. This type of violence is often characterized by its overt display of emotion, such as anger, frustration, or rage, and may serve as a means for individuals to express and release intense feelings. Expressive violence can manifest in various forms, including physical altercations, verbal abuse, or destructive behavior, and is typically fueled by underlying psychological factors rather than rational motivations.
Violence committed with a clear purpose or goal in mind, often used as a means to achieve a specific objective such as power, control, or financial gain. Unlike reactive violence which is impulsive or emotional, instrumental violence is typically premeditated and calculated.
A comprehensive research project conducted by the U.S. Department of Justice that aims to collect data on the presence, characteristics, and behavior of youth gangs across the U.S. This survey provides valuable insights into gang activity, helping policymakers, law enforcement agencies, and communities develop strategies to address and prevent gang-related issues.
A comprehensive research project conducted by the U.S. Department of Justice that aims to collect data on the presence, characteristics, and behavior of youth gangs across the U.S. This survey provides valuable insights into gang activity, helping policymakers, law enforcement agencies, and communities develop strategies to address and prevent gang-related issues.
The intentional use of force against another person that results in physical harm, injury, or pain. This form of abuse can include hitting, punching, kicking, slapping, pushing, or any other act that causes bodily harm or discomfort. Physical abuse can occur in various settings, such as domestic relationships, institutions, or between peers, and can have long-lasting physical and psychological effects on the victim.
A form of psychological maltreatment characterized by patterns of manipulation, coercion, and control that undermine an individual's sense of self-worth and emotional well-being. This abuse can take various forms, including verbal aggression, intimidation, humiliation, and isolation, and often occurs within personal relationships such as romantic partnerships, familial connections, or friendships. Emotional abuse can profoundly impact an individual's mental health and can be as damaging as physical abuse, yet it may be less visible and harder to recognize, making it crucial to understand its signs and effects.
A form of mistreatment or coercion where an individual is subjected to unwanted sexual activity or behavior. This can include but is not limited to physical contact, verbal harassment, or exposure to explicit material without consent. Sexual abuse can occur in various contexts, such as relationships, institutions, or within families, and it can have profound and long-lasting effects on the victim's physical, emotional, and psychological well-being.
A criminal act involving non-consensual sexual intercourse or penetration, typically perpetrated through force, coercion, or incapacitation of the victim. It is a grave violation of an individual's bodily autonomy and is universally condemned as a severe form of sexual violence. Rape can occur within various contexts, including intimate relationships, acquaintanceships, or perpetrated by strangers. It is important to recognize that consent is fundamental to all sexual interactions, and any sexual activity without explicit and enthusiastic consent constitutes rape.
A serious and often criminal behavior involving the mistreatment of a child, typically by an adult, which can manifest in various forms such as physical, emotional, sexual abuse, or neglect. It includes actions that cause harm, potential harm, or threat of harm to a child's health, development, or dignity. This behavior can have long-term detrimental effects on a child's physical and psychological well-being.
Criminal acts, such as assault, vandalism, or harassment, that are motivated by bias or prejudice against a particular group of people based on characteristics such as race, religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, gender identity, or disability. These crimes not only target individuals but also aim to intimidate and terrorize entire communities, perpetuating discrimination and inequality. Hate crimes are considered particularly egregious because they not only harm the immediate victim but also undermine societal values of equality and respect for diversity.
Preconceived opinions or attitudes held about individuals or groups based on their perceived membership in a particular social category, such as race, ethnicity, gender, religion, or socioeconomic status. Prejudice often involves stereotypes, which are oversimplified, negative, and generalized beliefs about a particular group, and can lead to discrimination, unequal treatment, and social inequality.
An inclination or temperament or outlook towards a particular perspective, idea, or outcome, often influencing decision-making and judgement, which leads to a disproportionate weight in favor against an idea, thing, or group in a manner that is unfair or prejudiced.
A social construct used to categorize people based on physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features, and hair texture. This classification system has historically been employed to delineate groups of individuals, often leading to discrimination and unequal treatment based on perceived differences. It is important to recognize that race is not biologically determined but rather a product of societal norms and perceptions.
Distinctive, distinguishing characteristics specific to a group of people who identify with one another based on perceived shared attributes such as common language, values, systems of belief, rituals, traidition, music, food, art, styles, a common ancestry, or same nations of origin.
An individual's personal held sense of their own gender, which may or may not align with the sex they were assigned at birth. It encompasses a spectrum beyond traditional binary notions of male and female, including identities such as transgender, non-binary, genderqueer, and more. Gender identity is an integral aspect of an individual's self-conception and may influence how they express themselves and interact with society.
Unwelcome or offensive behavior that creates an intimidating, hostile, or abusive environment for an individual or group. This can include but is not limited to verbal, physical, or electronic actions that target a person based on their race, gender, sexual orientation, religion, disability, or other protected characteristics. Harassment creates a hostile environment and can have serious emotional and psychological impacts on its victims, often interfering with their ability to work, study, or participate in normal activities, and it is often prohibited by law and institutional policies.
In criminal law, assault is the act of intentionally causing another person to fear imminent physical harm or offensive contact. Unlike battery, which involves actual physical contact, assault focuses on the threat or attempt to cause harm. An assault can be verbal or physical, and no actual injury or contact is required for an act to be considered assault. It is often categorized as either simple assault or aggravated assault, with the latter involving more serious threats or use of a weapon.
The deliberate destruction, defacement, or damage to public or private property without the owner's consent. This can include graffiti, property destruction, or any action that undermines the integrity or aesthetics of the property. Vandalism is often considered a form of antisocial behavior and can result in legal consequences.
The unlawful killing of one human being by another, whether intentional, unintentional, or as a result of criminal negligence. This legal term may be classified into categories such as murder, manslaughter, and justifiable homicide, each carrying different legal consequences based on the circumstances surrounding the act. Specifically, homicide encompasses various degrees of severity based on intent, ranging from murder, which involves deliberate and premeditated acts, to manslaughter, which typically involves unintended deaths resulting from negligence or reckless behavior resulting in death.
A demographic group that is numerically smaller or holds less power within a society compared to the dominant or majority group. Characteristics such as race, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexual orientation, or socioeconomic status can contribute to minority group status. Minority groups often face social, economic, and political disadvantages due to systemic inequalities and discrimination.
Groups, or even impersonal entities who suffer, either physically, psychologically, emotionally, or economically, as a direct or indirect result of illegal activities.
The criminal act of intentionally causing the death of two or more individuals by a single perpetrator or group of perpetrators within a specific time frame and location. This term encompasses various forms of homicide, including serial murders, mass murders, and spree killings.
See serial killer.
A term used to describe an individual who commits a series of murders, typically three or more, with a significant interlude between each crime. These perpetrators often share common characteristics such as a lack of empathy, a desire for power and control, and a tendency to select victims who fit certain criteria. The motivation behind their actions can vary widely, ranging from psychological disorders to a distorted sense of gratification or fulfillment derived from the act of killing. Serial killers are a subject of intense study in criminology and psychology due to the complexity of their behavior and the profound impact they have on society.
See spree murder.
The intentional killing of multiple individuals by a single perpetrator or group within a relatively short period and in a single location. This term typically denotes acts of violence that result in the death of four or more people, excluding the perpetrator(s). These tragic events often garner significant media attention and prompt societal discussions about motives, mental health, and prevention strategies.
Generally accepted rules and social expectations specific to a particular group or society that guide and regulate behavior and ways of doing within a society or group, dictating appropriate actions, values, and beliefs in various situations.
Offenses that involve acts which disrupt or threaten the stability, safety, or well-being of society as a whole. These crimes typically include behaviors such as public intoxication, disorderly conduct, loitering, and prostitution, among others. The focus of public order crimes is on maintaining public order and societal harmony rather than addressing harm to specific individuals.
Offenses that involve behaviors or actions deemed inappropriate, offensive, or disruptive in public spaces. These crimes typically involve acts such as public nudity, lewd behavior, indecent exposure, public urination, or public intoxication. The laws governing public decency crimes vary by jurisdiction but are generally in place to maintain societal standards of behavior, protect public morals, and ensure the comfort and safety of individuals in public settings.
Core beliefs and principles that individuals or societies hold to be important, desirable, and morally right, contributing to the ethical frameworks within a social group. They guide behavior, decisions, and priorities, shaping attitudes, cultural norms, and societal expectations. Values can encompass a wide range of ideals, including moral, religious, political, and aesthetic preferences, and are often deeply ingrained and subjective.
The exchange of sexual services for money or other forms of payment. Typically, one party, often referred to as a sex worker, provides sexual acts or companionship to another party, commonly known as a client or customer, in return for financial compensation. Prostitution may take various forms, including street prostitution, escort services, brothel-based work, and online solicitation. It is often subject to legal regulation and social stigma, with debates surrounding its ethical implications, health risks, and potential exploitation of individuals involved.
Loitering refers to lingering or staying in a public place without an apparent purpose or business, often seen as aimless or idle behavior. It may involve remaining in a particular location for an extended period, often leading to concerns about public safety or disruption. Laws and regulations governing loitering can vary depending on jurisdiction, with some places implementing restrictions to maintain order and prevent potential criminal activity.
A state of homelessness or wandering without a fixed residence or means of livelihood. Vagrancy often involves individuals moving from place to place without a permanent address or employment, often due to economic hardship, mental health issues, or other societal factors. Historically, vagrancy laws have been used to regulate and control individuals without fixed homes, though their enforcement and interpretation have varied widely over time and across different societies.
The act of dishonestly appropriating or secretly taking money or property that has been entrusted to one's care, typically by an employer or organization. It involves the illegal conversion of assets for personal use, often through manipulation or exploitation of one's position of trust or authority. Embezzlement constitutes a breach of fiduciary duty and is considered a form of financial fraud.
The illegal process of concealing the origins of money obtained through criminal activities, such as drug trafficking, corruption, or fraud. It involves disguising the proceeds of illicit activities by transforming them into legitimate assets or transactions. The purpose of money laundering is to make illegal gains appear legal and to integrate them into the financial system without arousing suspicion.
The buying or selling of a company's stock by someone who has access to non-public, material information about that company. This practice is illegal and unethical because it gives the insider an unfair advantage over other investors who do not have access to such information. Insider trading undermines the integrity of financial markets and can result in severe penalties for those involved, including fines and imprisonment.
The act of offering, giving, receiving, or soliciting something of value as a means to influence the actions of an individual holding a public or legal duty. Bribery is illegal and unethical, often involving monetary payments or gifts to sway decisions or secure an advantage in business, politics, or other sectors. It undermines fairness and integrity in societal and institutional processes.
The illegal act of deliberately underreporting income, inflating deductions, or hiding assets to reduce the amount of taxes owed to the government. It involves intentionally deceiving tax authorities to evade paying the full amount of taxes legally required, often resulting in penalties, fines, and legal consequences.
The unlawful taking and carrying away of someone else's personal property with the intent to permanently deprive the owner of that property. Larceny typically involves the absence of force or threat against the victim, distinguishing it from robbery.
Any criminal activity that involves the use of computers, networks, or digital devices to unlawfully access, alter, or manipulate data; disrupt digital systems or services; commit fraud; or engage in other illicit activities, often with the intent to cause harm, steal information, or gain financial benefit. Examples include hacking, malware distribution, online fraud, identity theft, and denial-of-service attacks.
A sociological concept encompassing any violation of the law committed by a person or group of persons in the course of otherwise respected and legitimate occupation or business enterprise.
The deliberate deception or misrepresentation made by an individual or entity with the intent to gain an unfair advantage, typically resulting in financial or personal gain at the expense of another party. Fraud can manifest in various forms, including but not limited to false statements, concealment of facts, or manipulation of information, and is often considered a criminal offense punishable by law.
