We are reminded daily through sounds, visuals, and experiences of the effect technology has on our lives. But what about the other impactful aspects of living in this time on Earth? Paul G. Davis, a member of my neighborhood, just celebrated his 99th birthday. He told me that looking back, he observed that “life and intelligence are incompatible” (Personal communication, July 18, 2023). In our quest to improve our way of life, we fail to consider the consequences of technological changes on a host of fronts: climate change, drug addiction, cybercrime, and technology, to name a few. What began as laborsaving devices, video games for leisure, or the means to keep people from suffering may actually result in unintended outcomes adverse to those that were intended. In 21st century policing and investigations, where the need is to detect and apprehend criminals and solve crimes in the safest, most efficient ways possible, innovation translates to the development of technology (Weisburd & Braga, 2019).

Law enforcement officers are generally not the innovators. Rather, their role is to communicate what they need to function more safely and efficiently based on their own experience. Detectives or forensics specialists may communicate a different list of needs. For example, they may need enhanced chemical kits to test street drugs (presumptively in the form of field testing kits, or conclusively using sophisticated equipment to accurately determine in a laboratory setting what the substance is). In these situations, it is vital that law enforcement properly identify the substance for use in a criminal case so that it will be admissible as evidence in court.

To list the ever-evolving technology and advances in the discipline of criminal justice would be too extensive for this textbook. The following examples are provided to demonstrate an array of options, either available or under development, for crime fighters:

• Automated license plate readers (ALPR): License plate recognition technology is normally interfaced with computer equipment that allows the patrol officer to accomplish a variety of routine (e.g., parking enforcement, vehicle identification, stolen vehicle identification and recovery) and emergency (e.g., attempt to locate individuals) patrol functions efficiently.
• Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), often referred to as drones, have gained a solid foothold in the equipment repository of police agencies (PERF, 2020). UAVs may be deployed to search for missing persons, monitor traffic on busy highways, conduct aerial photography, conduct surveillance, and accurately map collision and crime scenes. Additionally, they can carry essential items into inaccessible or hostile scenes, assist in rescues, deliver medical supplies and food to stranded individuals, and a host of other applications. In deploying this technology, police departments must ensure that privacy rights and Fourth Amendment (U.S. Const. amend. IV) laws are not violated and that UAV operators are fully trained to prevent injury or damage to property.
• Facial recognition systems: This technology compares a human face from a video image or photograph against an existing database of faces. One use for this technology is identifying individuals who might be on watch lists. This technology is capable of rapidly sorting individual characteristics, and when coupled with other available science (e.g., GPS technology), police are able to quickly discover the locations of wanted or missing persons.
• Biometrics: Research and development companies have been exploring myriad applications of biometrics in police patrol applications (Fritsvold, n.d.; Strom, 2017). Having the ability to use a patrol officer’s fingerprint, pupil, or even the officer’s breath as a personal method to verify their identity has proven quite useful in locking technology, such as vehicle doors, certain padlocks, and shared departmental access points. Until recently, it had been difficult to create a secure, quick method of locking a firearm’s trigger mechanism to prevent use by persons outside the department.
• Less-lethal equipment: Whole segments of research and development of public safety equipment are devoted to devising safe and efficient methods to control hostile crowds and to conduct one-on-one suspect apprehension. Public safety products emerging for police use are based on three main platforms: chemical (e.g., OC pepper spray), kinetic (e.g., rubber ballistic bullets or beanbag rounds discharged from a shotgun), and conducted energy (e.g., Taser® or other electronic control device).
• Artificial intelligence (AI): Harnessing big data to accurately predict crime trends, crowd movement, and surveillance will make policing more efficient in the future. One cutting-edge field of study is in facial recognition (U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2023), where potential threats can be quickly identified and interdicted before harm occurs. It can also be combined with closed-circuit television (CCTV) systems or even drones to scan landscapes, crowds, or busy intersections to search for inconsistencies or anomalies (PERF, 2024).
• Communication devices: Whether it is in the form of radio communications, encrypted digital systems, or covert, micro-sized cameras and microphones, communication devices are some of the fastest-evolving elements of law enforcement technology. Smartphone technology, including forms of digital forensic software, has expanded to more accurately locate, recover, and document digital evidence associated with electronic crimes, such as credit card fraud, identity theft, and child pornography. Finally, after decades of local, state, and federal agencies struggling to communicate with one another due to radio frequency blocks, radio technology has advanced to the point where multiagency conversations can now happen on a single radio. For example, an officer can communicate with his department on a VHF signal, and with a simple switch to a neighboring agency’s UHF frequency, can speak with an officer responding from that jurisdiction to provide mutual aid.
• Evolution of patrol vehicles: As officers receive even more equipment to assist them with their duties and responsibilities, the carrying capacity of their vehicles has increased. Some officers patrol in areas subject to frequent inclement weather and rugged terrain, or they operate largely on their own. In these cases, officers are likely to be outfitted with sport utility vehicles (SUV) or pickup truck platforms. Both may have certain essentials, such as four-wheel drive, winches, and trailer hitches, attached as needed. Calls for more energy-efficient patrol vehicles have led manufacturers to develop electric or hybrid vehicles with contemporary police packages (e.g., prisoner transport screens, emergency lighting systems). Finally, where some 20 years ago onboard computer systems were fairly rare (IACP, 2004), almost all departments now have mobile data terminals (MDTs) installed. This allows officers to efficiently conduct vehicle registration and operator license checks, thereby freeing the radio for urgent or emergency radio traffic.
• Uniforms and associated equipment: As noted previously, technology has literally lightened the load officers carry in terms of the weight of next-generation soft body armor. Tightly woven Kevlar® products, ceramics, and other protective surfaces have increased threat protection to a Tactical Level 4 (able to withstand and protect against many common rifle ballistics) while reducing the weight of the garment. Given to the number and weight of belt weapons, tools, and other items, many individual officers and departments are opting for external ballistic carriers that incorporate pouches, rings, and other items so that the weight of the duty gear is borne by the shoulders and not the lower back. Another method of reducing the stress of the belt weight is tactical suspenders.
• Body-worn cameras: While not new, body cameras are constantly improving in terms of clarity, image capture, and storage of end-product. Sometimes, there are struggles to keep pace with the implementation of body-worn cameras due to departmental policies that are needed to meet court forensic criteria and to withstand litigation.
• DNA database options and improvement: Even decades ago, investigators collected items of evidence believed to contain bits of the DNA makeup of relevant individuals (e.g., missing person, unknown victim, crime perpetrator). Much of this evidence languished in storage lockers for years because databases for comparison were largely incomplete or had not yet been designed and constructed. DNA collected properly is considered some of the most irrefutable evidence available to investigators. Legislation at the federal and state levels has created opportunities for investigators to harvest DNA from people accused or convicted of certain crimes. Expansion of existing databases through the introduction of new DNA profiles has become more robust, and investigators have made greater efforts to quickly enter DNA samples in new cases and to reopen cold cases to check for identifications. Finally, court decisions have opened the door for police to use open-access genealogical databases to identify potential suspects based on family tree DNA comparisons (Memmott, 2013).
• Gunshot detection technology: Police department heads in some cities have advocated for the strategic placement of devices that can accurately detect gunshots in real time. The cities of Seattle and Tacoma are currently contemplating the purchase of gunshot detection technology in an effort to reduce gun violence in their cities (Cabahug, 2014; Hunt & Robertson, 2024). It is believed that this technology may lead to quicker police responses, allowing for prompt medical aid responses to gunshot victims, and will assist in the apprehension of criminal shooters.

Wherever technology is employed, great care must be given to avoid inadvertently discriminating against individuals in the community. In the early deployment of facial recognition software, the accuracy of such technology came under fire when it was found that the majority of facial recognition algorithms were far more likely to misidentify racial minorities than Whites (Fontenot, 2020). In a study of racial bias in facial recognition technology, it was found that Asians, Blacks, and Indigenous people were particularly likely to be misidentified.

Electronic data sharing and case collaboration occur in fusion centers, real-time crime centers, and interconnected police departments who are able to share information in real time to identify associates, locate suspects, and better resolve crimes.

Attributions

1. Figure 7.7: Phantom/GoPro Camera Quadcopter Drone by Keving Baird is released under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0