Chapter 7: The Value of Play

Overview

Teacher Susan overheard “That’s not what I ordered!” with a reply of “You did not order from the menu. You have to get something from the menu!” It was Shandra and Jack, children in the Dragonfly preschool room. They were playing restaurant. Michelle, Shay and Tia came over and asked what was on the menu. Jack said the menu had soup, burgers, spaghetti, and chicken nuggets. Tia asked about the special of the day. Soon children decided on roles for themselves and there were two customers: a cook, and a server. The play continued with ordering, cooking, eating, and paying bills. Two children joined the restaurant play, and one watched.

Later in the day the children from the Dragonfly classroom were outside on the playground. Kai was sitting alone, playing in the sand and filling round containers. It had rained earlier in the day so the sand was wet. Shay came up to Kai and said “Are you making pies?” Kai replied “Yes.” Shay asked: “What kind of pie? Can it be served in a restaurant?” Kai said “berry pie” just as a group of children ran up to them and said “Oh no, hot lava! You are in the hot lava!” Everyone ran to the play structure, climbed to the top, and some expressed relief that they were all safe from the lava. They looked down at the lava for a couple of minutes until Shandra announced: “The lava is cool now.” A game of chase started and the children ran around the playground until Jack stopped because he noticed a worm on the ground. This led to conversations about the worm: why it was out, where it was going, and what it eats.

Although play is a common topic, people think of many different things when they hear the word “play” and describing it is complex. Chapter 7 starts with a description of play. The chapter continues with information about how play supports children’s development in all domains and seven common types of play are described. The last section will address how play happens in the early childhood classroom and includes information about how some children struggle when playing, by themselves, and/or with others.

 

 

7.1 What is Play

Play is common in childhood, especially for young children, yet it is difficult to describe (Mardel, 2019; Piaget, 1962; Sutton-Smith, 1997). Nevertheless, the presence of play for young children and as part of early childhood education (ECE) has persisted over time (Piaget, 1973; Smilansky & Shefatya, 1990; Sutton-Smith, 1997). Play is also considered an aspect of developmentally appropriate practice (DAP), according to the National Association for the Education of Young Children (2020). Before you read further, take a moment to write down your description of play. In a few sentences or bullet points, how would you describe play? Save your notes so you can compare them with what is described in this chapter.

One reason play is difficult to describe is that it is creative and fluid. As they are playing children try things out and develop ideas. It is not planned. The children act, talk, and do. Play is also personal—the player engages based on their own knowledge, understanding, and experiences. Play is a series or set of behaviors and actions (Piaget, 1962). It involves all domains of development, social/emotional, cognitive, and physical. Play is extrinsic —outside of an external to a person and observable. It is also intrinsic —within and inside a person and not observable. This means there are aspects of play that are external and can be seen and some that are internal and difficult to see (Parton, 1932; Smilansky & Shefatya, 1990; Sutton-Smith, 1997; Vygotsky, 1978).

Children make choices about what to play with, how to use the materials (toys), and whether or not there will be others involved. They make these decisions based on who and what is in the environment. For example, when four-year-old Joey arrives and enters the classroom, Joey plays with puzzles every day. When he arrives on Wednesday, he goes directly to the puzzle shelf and pulls down a puzzle. He glances over at three peers who are building a boat with blocks. Joey looks back and forth at the puzzle and the block building several times. Hesitantly, he sets the puzzle back on the shelf and goes over to the block area and says, “I am going to build a very big ship,” and starts to build next to his peers’ boat.

In this example, Joey is originally interested in working a puzzle, but the boat building also captured his attention. He pauses before he starts the puzzle and seems to think about what he wants to do. The behavior—playing with puzzles or blocks—is observable and extrinsic. The decision-making is intrinsic, an internal cognitive and social/emotional process of deciding and following through with the decision. A careful observer who has a relationship with Joey and knows him well could comment on Joey’s motivation (Erikson, 1963), interests (Dewey, 1913), and thinking (Piaget, 1962; Vygotsky, 1978). Although the careful observer could comment on Joey’s motivation, the comments are a hypothesis. Additionally, Joey’s actions may change at any moment. Play is creative and fluid—young children’s actions change due to shifts in interests, developmental levels, and for various other reasons that are unseen. Therefore, play is complex, and when you think about all that is involved, you can see how it is difficult to describe.

7.1.1 Description of Play

Although play is complex, there are key components that can be used to describe it. Three words that have been used to describe play are: choice, wonder, and delight (Mardell, 2019). Play, even for infants and toddlers, includes choices, such as deciding what to play, how to play it, and for how long they want to play. It also includes imagination and making up the things that may be different from reality (Luckenbill et al., 2019).

Joey, from the example in the previous section, makes his own decision about what to play. Wonder relates to curiosity—Joey is curious about what his peers are doing. The story of Joey’s play continues: Joey starts building his big ship and while doing so talks with his peers. They discuss how they are using blocks to build their ships and begin to discuss trips. Joey says, “If we are going on a long trip, we will need food!” He runs to the dramatic play area and brings back plastic food. Two more children join the play, and the ships are redesigned and enlarged so that the children can get on the ship, take a trip, and eat food. One person says, “Let’s go to dinosaur land!” The other children agree, and the journey begins. The children are focused, talking, and laughing at different ideas. The second part of the story shows delight. In this example, the laughter is an obvious sign of delight; however, enjoyment and joy can be experienced in many ways, and it is not always with laughter. The example also shows that the children are using their imaginations and making up ideas.

7.2 Play and Children’s Development

Play, with the opportunities for choice, wonder, and delight (Mardell, 2019), can be thought of as an experience rather than an activity . Experience and activity are not the same. Experiences involve personal connections and are defined as “something personally encountered, undergone, or lived through” (Merriam-Webster, 2005b, p. 440). The various definitions of activity include action and “being active” (Merriam-Webster, 2005a, p. 13). Although play is active, it is also personal and involves children bringing their own knowledge of the world to build upon it either alone or with others during play experiences (Parten, 1932; Piaget, 1962; Smilansky & Shefatya, 1990; Smith, 2010; Sutton-Smith, 1997; Vygotsky, 1978). A well-designed environment can be used by a skillful teacher for play experiences as a priority for supporting children’s learning. [crossref:8]Chapter 8[/crossref] of this book will address the environment.

Play, as an experience, can result in benefits for children as it creates conditions conducive to growth and development (Dewey, 1938; NAEYC, 2020; Piaget, 1973). Despite the benefits, academic instruction (such as learning the names of letters and numbers) is valued over play in some early learning programs (Almon & Miller, 2011). This is creating a reduction in opportunities for children to play. Because it is important for children’s development, the American Academy of Pediatrics published a report to guide doctors with information needed to talk with families about play, including writing a prescription for it (Yogman et al., 2018).

Katz (2010) wrote about “standards of experience” and described how instead of emphasizing performance standards (such as identifying letters and numbers), teachers and other early learning professionals can think about types of experiences offered for children. Rather than academic activities, children can engage in play, which allows them to pursue what is of interest to them and to do so at their own developmental level.

Play experiences create opportunities for children to engage in all areas of development and it promotes creative thought and expression (Bodrova & Leong, 1996; Carlson, 2011; Dewey, 1913, 1916, 1938; Isbell & Yoshizawa, 2016; Parten, 1932; Piaget, 1962, 1973; Smilansky & Shefatya, 1990; Smith, 2010; Sutton-Smith, 1997; Yogman et al., 2018). Additionally, play is valuable because it can result in practice that builds various skills (Sutton-Smith, 1997). The domains of development are cognitive, physical, social, and emotional. These areas overlap and intersect with each other, and this can be seen during play. For the purposes of understanding how play supports each developmental domain, the domains will be described separately but keep in mind that all developmental domains are used when children are playing.

Play is intellectual; it requires thinking. When playing, children represent their thinking symbolically through the use of physical and mental tools (Dewey, 1916; Piaget, 1962, 1973; Vygotsky, 1978). During play, children not only represent their ideas, but they also construct knowledge of the physical and social world (Piaget, 1962; Vygotsky, 1978). Play requires self-regulation, which builds executive function (Bodrova & Leong, 1996; Yogman et al., 2018). As described by Yogman et al. (2018), play helps children develop twenty-first century skills such as creative thinking and problem solving, and these skills use executive functioning.

Equally important to cognition is physical and social/emotional development. As you read about in[crossref:4] Chapter 4[/crossref], physical development includes fine and gross motor skills as well as movement. When children use materials and toys in play, they use fine and gross motor skills and in some forms of play engage in movement and physical activity. Physical development begins before birth as babies move their bodies in the womb and continues throughout childhood (Carlson, 2011). Infants engage in sensorimotor activity, such as waving a rattle and watching it. This type of play is physical and interrelated to cognition and future development (Dewey, 1913; Erikson, 1963; Piaget, 1962; Vygotsky, 1978). Sensorimotor play continues in toddlers with increased mobility as children learn to walk and are continually in motion (Carlson, 2011). There is interest and motivation to move oneself and objects (Dewey, 1913), and at times it can take a lot of effort and/or is sustained for a length of time. This can be observed when watching a one-year-old move objects around the room such as pushing a chair or box, and the primary interest in this play is to move. Preschoolers gain coordination and increasing competence with physical activity (Carlson, 2011). As fine and gross motor skills are refined, it is demonstrated in the way they play with toys that connect, sensory materials such as play dough and clay, and writing/drawing materials. They also use large motor skills such as running, jumping, and climbing. As children get older, they have the motor ability to build with materials such as Legos and can play games like hopscotch.

Social/emotional development is also important for children. Children play with adults and with each other, therefore they engage in social interaction. There is an intrinsic, emotional aspect to play. The previous description of play as involving choice, wonder, and delight (Mardell, 2019) provides a summary of the emotional aspects of play. Each word—choice, wonder, and delight—involves emotions. Children choose based on interests and motivation (Dewey, 1913). Wonder involves curiosity and is usually related to positive emotional interest. Delight is a word to describe pleasure and joy. Imagine three children playing outside where there are rocks that are large enough to stay in place but small enough for a child to move. One child turns a rock over. The children find bugs and worms that were underneath the rock, and one exclaims, “Wow, look at that!” Another says: “He is moving, look, he is crawling really fast!” The third says: “Where is he going?” A debate starts about whether or not the bug is scared, hungry, or looking for a new home. In this example, the children decided to play with the rock and move it, were excited about what they found under it, and wondered about what the creatures were doing. Take a minute to think about your emotions when you can make choices, in what you wonder about, and how you feel when you hear the word delight.

Play involves all of the developmental domains. There is a developmental aspect to play. The play of very young children—infants—is quite different from the play of older children. These differences are a result of development and life experiences. As children get older, their play becomes more sophisticated. Developmental progression is a basis for some theories and authors, such as Piaget (1962, 1973) and Parten (1932). Play is complex, and there are many ways in which to examine children’s play, the benefits of it, and it can be helpful to use the domains as a framework for understanding play and development. Reading about the types of play brings further clarification of play and its role in children’s development and early learning.

7.2.1 Types of Play

As established at the beginning of this chapter, play is complex. For the purposes of studying and understanding play, it is often divided into types of play (Luckenbill et al., 2019; Smith, 2010). Similar to describing play, the categories are complex, and they overlap (Smith, 2010). Nevertheless, categorizing play into differing types aids in understanding it. This section is categorized into six types: sensorimotor , physical , exploratory , constructive , dramatic , and outdoor/nature play . Risky play , which could be classified as its own type of play, is included with nature play because outdoor experiences create good opportunities for risk-taking.

Sensorimotor play begins early in life (Luckenbill et al., 2019; Piaget, 1962, 1973; Smith, 2010). In sensorimotor play, children engage with physical movement and input from the senses. The play actions can include materials, the child’s own body, other people, and sensory action and exploration. Actions may be repetitive. They also can build and expand from the repetitions (Piaget, 1962). Sensorimotor play is common in Infants and toddlers.

Infants and toddlers often engage in exploratory play, although older children will explore new materials (Smith, 2010). Exploratory play is exploration. When engaged in exploratory play, children are learning about the materials. Think about when you get a new item, such a new stove, car, type of yarn, sewing machine, or power tool. You take time to get to know the new features and if appropriate, how it feels to use the new item. You explore the new item. Similarly, in exploratory play, that is what children do to get to know the materials. Exploratory play may be referred to as practice play (Piaget, 1962) or functional play (Smilansky & Shefatya, 1990). In this chapter, the term “exploratory” is used because it is descriptive of what children do when engaged in this type of play.

When children have an understanding of materials, they can use them in a purposeful manner. If they are not familiar with the materials, they explore and learn about how the materials work rather than intentionally create. Constructive play can be described as using open-ended materials to create things (Luckenbill, et al., 2019; Smith, 2010). Think about children playing with blocks. They use the blocks with purpose to build roads, ships, airplanes, castles, beds, etc. Through exploratory play, they learned they can stack the blocks and this knowledge leads to purposeful use of the materials to create. Another example is with sticks. Exploration may include waving and breaking sticks. Some sticks are not as easy to wave or break. Such sticks might be used to build or stir.

Constructive play can lead to and be used with dramatic play. Dramatic play is known by other names such as pretend and fantasy play. In dramatic play, children take on roles and act out scenarios. Imitation, such as with the child acting as a firefighter, can be a part of dramatic play (Erikson, 1963; Piaget, 1962; TEDxTalks, 2013). Children may build a fire station with blocks and other materials, perhaps sticks as hoses, and once built, it emerges into dramatic play because they become firefighters.

When dramatic play involves others, it is socio-dramatic play (Smilansky & Shefatya, 1990). Socio-dramatic play most often begins when children are three. Toddlers usually engage in dramatic play alone. Older children, even beyond preschool years, engage in socio-dramatic play, although it is not inappropriate for them to play alone, in any type of play.

Children engage in dramatic play in differing ways. Parten (1932) identified six ways children participate in socio-dramatic play, which can be called engagement strategies. The six engagement strategies are on a continuum ranging from not involved to active participation. The engagement strategies are as follows: unoccupied, solitary, onlooker, parallel, associative, cooperative. Unoccupied play is not playing or doing anything in particular; solitary is playing alone; onlooker is watching others play, usually showing interest but not getting involved; parallel is playing next to another but not together; associative is playing next to, at times talking and/or looking at the other person, but not playing the same thing; and cooperative is children playing together, doing the same thing, and creating one storyline.

Unoccupied and solitary can be classified under dramatic play, onlooker, parallel, associative, and cooperative fit into socio-dramatic play. Furthermore, Parten’s study (1932) revealed that the engagement strategies can be considered as progressive stages because the findings indicated that older preschoolers used cooperative play, but younger children did not. My observations as a preschool teacher for over 20 years, as an on-site trainer for early childhood programs, and as a college instructor have been consistent with Parten’s findings that the stages show a developmental continuum. Children will engage in “earlier” stages, but until developmentally ready to do so do not use later stages such as cooperative play. It may be helpful to add that I found socio-dramatic play to be fascinating, informative, and complex to observe as well as useful in the teaching and learning process.

An example of constructive play used in conjunction with dramatic/socio-dramatic play may illustrate the complexity and value of play as part of the teaching and learning. It is possible that a child may be involved in a socio-dramatic play situation but primarily engaging in constructive play, such as in building a boat or an airplane for others to use in the cooperative play story line. Nevertheless, the social involvement is significant because the child is participating with others and must construct in accordance with the play topic. Each child who is playing must follow the storyline and contribute, which requires knowledge, language skills to comprehend and add to the storyline, and self-regulation.

For example, if the play topic is taking a trip and traveling on an airplane, it would not be appropriate to construct a boat. If a child has built boats and has no experience with airplanes but is interested in playing with the others, an airplane must be constructed. A boat will not work for air travel. The child must now expand thinking and self-regulate to stay on task to build an airplane. The child may or may not have information about airplanes. Lack of knowledge and/or other skills creates opportunities for learning as well as demonstrates the sophistication and complexity of children’s play.

This example illustrates that there are implicit (not stated) rules in socio-dramatic play (Bodrova & Leong, 1996; Vygotsky, 1978). It also brings to light Vygostky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (1978). The ZPD is a range of functioning and/or completing a task independently to doing so with assistance. A child can function at a higher level with assistance from others. In this case, if the builder has minimal information about airplanes and has never been on one, the peers can provide the needed information for constructing the plane that includes the inside accommodations for travelers.

Additionally, according to Vygotsky’s theory (1978), preschool children function at their highest level when engaged in socio-dramatic play. Socio-dramatic play requires self-regulation and executive functioning (Bodrova & Leong, 2007; Vygotsky, 1978). It is also important to note that children’s interests can provide motivation for trying new things (Dewey, 1913).

Children also engage in physical play. Physical play is active and robust in which children are engaged in gross motor movement (Smith, 2010; Pellegrini, 2011). Children of all ages engage in physical play, but it looks different in infants and usually involves such actions as kicking legs and waving arms (Pellegrini, 2011). Physical play has also been referred to as big body play (Carlson, 2011); although adults can be uncomfortable with this type of play, it is beneficial for children’s physical development.

Rough and tumble play is a form of physical play that is done with others (Carlson, 2011; Smith, 2010). Rough and tumble play is different from fighting. In rough and tumble play, the goal is to play together rather than to harm or work against one another (Carlson, 2011). It occurs at all ages. It may be hard to imagine infants in rough and tumble play, but the examples given by Luckenbill et al. (2019) provide a good illustration: “infants crawling over other infants” and “pulling opposite each other on a length of fabric” (p. 9).

Physical play often occurs outdoors. Outdoor and nature play has been gaining attention in recent years and it has been shown that children’s outdoor experiences, especially with nature, have been decreasing, which may be contributing to developmental issues (Louv, 2005). In this chapter, outdoor and nature play are considered one category. Nature is present outdoors, including places such as sidewalks, manufactured playgrounds, or concrete surfaces such as parking lots which seem to be devoid of natural elements. Weather, worms, insects, leaves, trees, weeds, etc. are part of nature, and these are just a few examples of things that can be found in most any outdoor environment that children visit on a regular basis.

One way to think about outdoor/nature play is through thinking about outdoor spaces in early childhood programs as outdoor learning environments (OLE) (Cooper, 2015; Falk, 2018; Nature Explore Program). The OLE affords opportunities that are different from what is found indoors. It is not surprising that children’s play is different outdoors (Engelen et al., 2018). Nature provides loose parts (Nicholson, 1971,) such as sticks, rocks, and logs that can be moved around and used in many differing ways. Children tend to be active in the OLE because there is more space for running and other large motor activities such as playing on manufactured playground equipment or using natural elements. A log or tree, if permitted, can promote physical play, including climbing. Additionally, early childhood teachers allow more physical activity outdoors (Storli & Sandseter, 2019). The OLE also affords opportunities for risky play. Risky play is children taking on risks. This often causes adults concerns over safety even though children have the capability to negotiate risks (Keeler, 2020). Children may see a risky situation and do one of the following: engage, change it so it is less risky, or choose not to engage (Lavrysen et al., 2017). A child may see a large rock and choose to try to climb it, get a block to stand on to assist with climbing, or do nothing with the rock. Engaging with risk, with or without changing it, is beneficial for children’s physical, social/emotional, and cognitive development (Bento & Costa, 2018; Keeler, 2020; Lavrysen et al., 2017; McClain & Vandermaas-Peeler, 2016).

The six categories of play provide a framework for understanding play. All types of play are a part of DAP (NAEYC, 2020). Each play type has been described separately but is not exclusive. The play types can be combined and often overlap when children are playing.

7.3 Play in the Early Childhood Classroom

Thus far in this chapter, play and its value for children has been described. Developmentally appropriate classrooms contain physical spaces with daily schedules that incorporate blocks of time for play (NAEYC, 2020). This includes time for indoor and outdoor play. A well-designed environment can be used by a skillful teacher for play experiences as a priority for supporting children’s learning. It is a teacher’s responsibility and a core teaching practice to support children’s learning from play. This includes observing and intervening to facilitate and extend children’s actions, interactions, and thinking. A few key aspects regarding the environment that relate to play are described in this section.

Indoors, children need time to get involved and fully engage in play, with a minimum of 45 minutes is needed (Hanscom, 2016). In a well-run classroom, children can engage in free play for up to one and half hours. This gives children time to choose what they want to do and fully engage in play (Koepp et al., 2022). It also allows for the opportunity for children to create through constructive play and use the creation in dramatic play. Imagine how disappointing it would be to create an elaborate castle but not have time to dress up and play in it! Additionally, children need the materials and space to create the castle. Lack of open-ended materials and not enough space can result in missed opportunities for creative play, which also means they are not benefiting from such experiences.

As previously mentioned, the OLE provides opportunities for differing types of play, especially vigorous physical activity (Engelen et al., 2018) and risky play (Keeler, 2020; Storli & Sandseter, 2019). Outside time is typically not considered recess and a “break” because young children are learning all the time. Instead of recess, play and engagement in the OLE can be considered additional opportunities and enhancement of indoor learning (Mustapa et al., 2015).

Weather is often given as a reason for not playing outdoors. Not going outside when it is raining or snowing can contribute to missed opportunities, similar to what happened with the castle example above. Although at first it can appear as a daunting task to get children to put on outdoor gear such raincoats, hats, mittens, and boots, it becomes part of the routine as well as presents opportunities for practicing fine motor and self-help skills. The rain that is often present here in the Pacific Northwest is a wonderful resource for play! Water makes mud, which can be used in making pies and soups, and especially for children who enjoy sensory activities and pretend play.

Allowing children to use the environment, especially outdoors, is also a challenge for teachers (Cheng et al., 2023). This can relate to weather, such as playing in puddles, as well as with using items from the environment. Loose parts such as sticks, rocks, and wood chips can be added to soups and pies (perhaps made with water and mud) and can be used in other ways. Children use items in the environment for dramatic play. One teacher described the children using wood chips as food for playing restaurant, specifically Happy Meals at the McDonald’s drive-through. The outdoor playhouse was the building; children served the wood chips to other children (and teachers) as they walked or rode bikes to the drive through (M. Naw, personal communication, January 15, 2021). Another teacher described how the children would organize themselves to re-enact the story of the Three Billy Goats Gruff using a log as a bridge for the troll (T. Sy, personal communication, December 28, 2020). Both teachers said the children played these storylines many times and each time the play included more than one child and was done outdoors, but not indoors. Additionally, stationary items such as large rocks and logs can be used for physical and risky play.

The early childhood classroom, indoors and out, should be an environment that is rich with opportunities for play. [crossref:8]Chapter 8[/crossref] will address the environment. As you read the chapter, you can think about how environmental design creates opportunities for the different types of play.

7.3.1 Issues and Challenges with Play

Although children all over the world play (TEDxTalks, 2013), some face challenges in doing so. Take a moment to think about what play involves, especially constructive and dramatic/socio-dramatic play. To construct, children need to know about the materials and how to put them together, have the physical development to work with the materials, use creative thinking, and stay on task. To engage in dramatic play, they need to have a topic to play (cooking, airplane, boat, family, etc.), use creative thinking, and if socio-dramatic, they need to be able to follow the storyline, self-regulate, and sometimes the skills needed to enter a group. An additional type of play that has been gaining attention is risky play that involves understanding one’s own skills and the emotional willingness to try something challenging (Keeler, 2020). This list of skills and abilities is a general list, and it is lengthy! You can imagine what it takes to engage in play and how some children face challenges.

Some of the common challenges and issues children face with play can be grouped into three categories: materials, language, and other. These categories were created as a way of explaining the challenges. The descriptions in each category are not comprehensive. The purpose is to give the reader a general idea of reasons children may struggle with play, especially in an early childhood classroom.

Often children use materials and toys when they play. As you have read about in this chapter, during exploratory play, children explore and gain an understanding of materials and in constructive play the materials are used purposefully. As infants and toddlers, they look at, move around, and try to work the materials. One issue that can arise is when infants and toddlers do not take initiative and explore with materials.

Sometimes older children have difficulty using materials. This may be because they have limited experience with the materials, therefore they need time to engage in exploratory play. It also could be that a child needs support to learn to use the materials purposefully. Most children gain a sense of using materials through exploratory play, but some do not. An example is a four-year-old who would touch pieces together, but never connect or build. The child did this with any type of toy that had connecting pieces. “Play” with the materials lasted about two minutes, and then this child would throw the toys. This frustrated peers. Often, this child would engage in inappropriate behaviors to gain attention. The situation was resolved when the teachers took time to play with this child and demonstrate how to work the materials. With the knowledge of what to do with the materials, this child could purposefully engage. This child needed the support of the teachers to gain an understanding of and skills for using the materials.

Language, the second category listed above, may not be as easy to see as the challenges with materials. When children play with peers, in constructive or socio-dramatic play, they communicate and most often do so through words. Children need to be able to talk to and understand what peers are saying. Expressive language is talking so a person knows what is said being and saying it in a manner that makes sense. Receptive language is understanding what is being said. Both expressive and receptive language are a part of play with others, especially socio-dramatic play (Hà, 2022).

Children usually start to engage in cooperative play at about three years (Parten, 1932) and have the speech and language to communicate effectively. Some children do not have this level of speech and language. If a child struggles with saying words, doing so in a way that others can understand, and/or following what is being said, it makes it difficult and frustrating for the child. Children can be very accepting of one another, but the child who is struggling knows that peers are not understanding what is being said or feels confused by what is going on. This area is one of the more challenging areas for teachers because it can be difficult to intervene. When adults enter, children’s play often changes (Rymanowicz, 2015). There is a fine line between interrupting and changing the play versus supporting it and a child who may be struggling. It is not within the scope of this chapter to address interventions; rather, the point is to bring awareness that children can struggle with play and that teachers’ support is needed.

In addition to materials and language, there is the “other” category. This category is broad and includes physical challenges, such as sitting in a wheelchair with limited access to the play area, not being able to see or hear, or other motor challenges that get in the way of playing. A child may not fit into an area or may have coordination difficulties and knock over what is being built. Some interventions for physical challenges can be addressed with environmental design. As you read [crossref:8]Chapter 8[/crossref], you can keep physical challenges in play in your mind. You may start to see the significance of intentionally designed environments and the complexities teachers face in doing so.

The other category also includes not playing for various reasons such as: wandering, flitting about rather than sustaining play, staying in the onlooker stage (Parten, 1932) rather than eventually joining, and being rejected from play. This is a list of common challenges, but it is not comprehensive. With each of these reasons, teacher support targeted to help the child gain the needed skills, is beneficial. Once again, it is beyond the scope of this chapter to fully address challenges in play and how to foster and support children; rather, this chapter will give the reader an idea of play in an early childhood classroom.

Rejection is worth a special mention because it happens and it can be overlooked in a busy early childhood classroom, especially at full-day programs in which children are there for eight or more hours. In kindergarten through third grade classrooms where children go outside for recess and often play with peers, it can easily go unnoticed. Play, especially cooperative play (Parten, 1932), takes a lot of work. It can be quite difficult when there are more players, which means more roles and more ideas. It also means more personalities and more negotiation. A well-known author, Vivian Gussin Paley, wrote about children’s play and pondered inclusion, and specifically stated, “the rejected children know who they are, whether or not they tell us” (1993, p. 15). From years of experience, I agree. I have a vivid memory, from 17 years ago, of a mother reporting that her child was upset about a peer moving to a new school. Her child rarely interacted with the one who moved, so she asked why he was so concerned. His reply: “Because he is the mean kid, just like me. We both have no friends to play with.” I think this underscores the importance of teacher observation, assessment, and support during children’s play.

Rejection and the other challenges children face with play are a concern. Not only is it sad to hear about rejection, but the result is also—as with any other reason a child does not play—that a child is not fully participating in the classroom. Play is a part of the curriculum (NAEYC, 2020), and all children need classrooms that allow for full participation and engagement.

References

Almon, J., & Miller, E. (2011, November). The crisis in early education: A research-based case for more play and less pressure. Alliance for Childhood. http://allianceforchildhood.org/s/Crisis-in-Early-Ed-A-Research-Based-Case-for-More-Play.pdf

Bento, G., & Costa, J. A. (2018). Outdoor play as a mean to achieve educational goals: A case study in a Portuguese day-care group. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 18(4), 289-302. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2018.1443483 

Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (1996). Tools of the mind: The Vygotskian approach to early childhood education. Merrill.

Carlson, F. M. (2011). Big body play: Why boisterous, vigorous and very physical play is essential to children’s development and learning. National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Cheng, T., Brussoni, M., Han, C., Munday, F., & Zeni, M. (2023). Perceived challenges of early childhood educators in promoting unstructured outdoor play: an ecological systems perspective. Early Years, 43(4–5), 904–920. https://doi.org/10.1080/09575146.2022.2034140 CC BY NC ND.

Cooper, A. (2015). Nature and the outdoor learning environment: The forgotten resource in early childhood education. International Journal of Early Childhood Environmental Education, 3(1), 85-97. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1108430

Dewey, J. (1913). Interest and effort in education. Houghton Mifflin.

Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. Macmillan.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. Macmillan.

Engelen, L., Wyver, S., Perry, G., Bundy, A., Chan, T. K. Y., Ragen, J., Bauman, A., & Naughton, G. (2018). Spying on children during a playground intervention using a novel method for direct observation of activities during outdoor play. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 18(1), 86-95. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2017.1347048

Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society. (2^nd ed.). W. W. Norton.

Falk, J. (2018, October). Needed: A stronger voice for quality early childhood outdoor learning environments. Natural Start Alliance, North American Association for Environmental Education. https://naturalstart.org/feature-stories/needed-stronger-voice-quality-early-childhood-outdoor-learning-environments

Hà, T. A. (2022). Pretend play and early language development—relationships and impacts: A comprehensive literature review. Journal of Education, 202(1), 122-130. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022057420966761

Hanscom, A. J. (2016). Balanced and barefoot: How unrestricted outdoor play makes for strong, confident, and capable children. New Harbinger Publications.

Isbell, R., & Yoshizawa, S. A. (2016). Nurturing creativity: An essential mindset for young children’s learning. National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Katz, L. G. (2010, May). Standards of experience. Community Playthings. https://www.communityplaythings.com/resources/articles/2010/standards-of-experience

Keeler, R. (2020). Adventures in risky play: What is your yes? Exchange Press.

Koepp, A. E., Gershoff, E. T., Castelli, D. M., & Bryan, A. E. (2022). Total play time needed for preschoolers to reach recommended amount of non-sedentary activity. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(6), 3354. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063354 CC BY.

Lavrysen, A., Bertrands, E., Leyssen, L., Smets, L., Vanderspikken, A., & De Graef, P. (2017). Risky-play at school: Facilitating risk perception and competence in young children. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 25(1), 89-105. https://doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2015.1102412

Louv, R. (2005). Last child in the woods: Saving our children from nature-deficit disorder. Algonquin Books.

Luckenbill, J., Subramaniam, A., & Thompson, J. (2019). This is play: Environments and interactions that engage infants and toddlers. National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Mardell, B. (2019). Playful learning in early childhood classrooms: It’s complicated. Exchange, 247, 53-56. http://www.exchangepress.com/article/playful-learning-in-early-childhood-classrooms-its-complicated/5024753/

McClain, C., & Vandermaas-Peeler, M. (2016). Social contexts of development in natural outdoor environments: Children’s motor activities, personal challenges and peer interactions at the river and the creek. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 16(1), 31-48. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2015.1050682

Merriam-Webster. (2005a). Activity. In Merriam-Webster’s collegiate dictionary (11^th ed., p. 13).

Merriam-Webster. (2005b). Experience. In Merriam-Webster’s collegiate dictionary. (11^th ed., p. 440).

Mustapa, N. D., Maliki, N. Z., & Hamzah, A. (2015). Repositioning children’s developmental needs in space planning: A review of connection to nature. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 170, 330-339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.043 CC BY NC ND.

National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2020, April). Developmentally appropriate practice. https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/position-statements/dap-statement_0.pdf

Nicholson, S. (1971). How NOT to cheat children: The theory of loose parts. Landscape Architecture, 62(1), 30-34. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44663886

Paley, V. G. (1993). You can’t say you can’t play. Harvard University Press.

Parten, M. B. (1932). Social participation among preschool children. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 27(3), 243-269. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0074524

Pellegrini, A. D. (2011). The development and function of locomotor play. In A. D. Pellegrini (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of the development of play (pp. 172–184). Oxford University Press.

Piaget, J. (1962). Play, dreams, and imitation in childhood. W. W. Norton.

Piaget, J. (1973). To understand is to invent: The future of education. Grossman.

Rymanowicz, K. (2015, December 8). The power of play – Part 5: Adult roles in child’s play. Michigan State University Extension. https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/the_power_of_play_part_5_adult_roles_in_childs_play

Smilansky, S., & Shefatya, L. (1990). Facilitating play: A medium for promoting cognitive, socio-emotional and academic development in young children. Psychosocial & Educational Publishers.

Smith, P. K. (2010). Children and play. Wiley-Blackwell.

Storli, R., & Sandseter, E. B. H. (2019). Children’s play, well-being, and involvement: How children play indoors and outdoors in Norwegian early childhood education and care institutions. International Journal of Play, 8(1), 65-78. https://doi.org/10.1080/21594937.2019.1580338

Sutton-Smith, B. (1997). The ambiguity of play. Harvard University Press.

TEDxTalks. (2013, April 1). When education goes wrong: Dr. Nancy Carlsson Paige at TEDXxTheCalhounSchool [Video]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BZzFM1MHz_M

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjf9vz4

Yogman, M., Garner, A., Hutchinson, J., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health, Council on Communications and Media, Baum, R., Gambon, T., Lavin, A., Mattson, G., Wissow, L., Hill, D. L., Ameenuddin, N., Chassiakos, Y. R., Cross, C., Boyd, R., Mendelson, R., Moreno, M. A., … Smith, J. (2018). The power of play: A pediatric role in enhancing development in young children. Pediatrics, 142(3), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-2058