Chapter 5: Transportation Services

Overview

The global growth of the hospitality and tourism (HOST) industries is strongly correlated with advancements in transportation infrastructure and technology. Over the past century, planes, trains, automobiles, ships, railways, and public transit have enabled increasing numbers of people to travel greater distances for leisure and business. For example, commercial air travel has exploded from just 25 million passengers in 1950 to over 4 billion in 2019 (International Air Transport Association [IATA], 2023). High-speed rail networks have also proliferated; since 1964, over 44,000 km of high-speed rail lines have been built worldwide, allowing convenient overland travel at speeds up to 350 km/h (Union Internationale des Chemins [UIC], 2015, 2018).

Emerging technologies like hyperloop systems and eventual space tourism promise to further transform transportation and expand HOST industries. However, virtual and augmented reality may redefine “travel” itself, allowing immersive experiences without physical displacement. In a survey, 71% of travelers said they would be willing to use extended reality on future trips (as cited in Howell & Hadwick, 2017).

This growth has necessitated complex, interconnected transportation ecosystems . Key players must cooperate to provide safe, efficient, and enjoyable journeys. For example, airlines and airports must collaborate to optimize hub-and-spoke route networks, implement advanced logistics like just-in-time catering, and deliver excellent customer service. Moreover, transportation and tourism firms increasingly utilize data analytics, AI, and business intelligence to improve key performance indicators like load factor, yield management, and operational efficiency. As technology progresses, emerging innovations combined with astute management will shape the future of transportation and travel.

 

5.1 Introduction

5.1.1 Defining Transportation Services In Host

Transportation is inextricably linked to the growth and evolution of the global hospitality and tourism (HOST) industries. As modes of transportation have advanced over centuries, from wagons to railways to jet aircraft, the ability for people to travel greater distances with speed and comfort has transformed tourism. Modern tourism would not be possible without effective mass transportation. Yet, with growth comes responsibility. Problematic qualities have emerged from mass transportation.

Transportation accounts for approximately 75% of tourism’s annual carbon footprint (UN World Travel Organization [UNWTO] & International Transport Forum, 2019). Yet, transportation cannot be eliminated to cap environmental impacts. Transportation directly enables over 1.5 billion international tourist arrivals per year (UNWTO, 2020, as cited in UN Tourism, n.d.). These tourism arrivals are big business and necessary for the economies of many countries, particularly those with emergent economies, to exist.

This chapter will provide an overview of the key transportation sectors that facilitate travel, their historical development, current landscape, and future directions.

5.1.2 The Importance of Transportation Services And Systems

Transportation systems are complex. The interconnected nature of our global transportation ecosystem mandates coordination between providers, regulators, and infrastructure. These organizations are potentially competitors in many ways, yet they need to function together for the betterment of our global transportation networks. In short, the overall purpose within transportation services is for people to enable safe and enjoyable journeys whether for leisure, business, or other reasons, even when the organizations involved are each other’s competition at times.

Managers of future transportation services will need to utilize data analytics to optimize operations and balance customer service with profitability. Furthermore, regulation on transportation is often understood to be strict according to managers in this field. As technology progresses, transportation will continue driving tourism growth while striving for sustainability. Sustainability is yet another trend in this field that managers should prepare for in order to succeed in their career pathways.

5.1.2.1 Development Of Tourism

Modern tourism emerged in the early 1800s with new forms of transportation like steam trains and cruise ships. Railway networks catalyzed domestic tourism, while ocean liners enabled international leisure travel (Cruise Lines International Association [CLIA], 2019). Air travel revolutionized tourism after World War II. In 1950, just 25 million passengers flew globally (Land, 1951); by 2019, annual traffic exceeded 4.3 billion (Industry High Level Group, 2019). Low-cost carriers like Southwest, Ryanair, and AirAsia have further democratized air travel. Today, the Asia-Pacific region dominates air traffic with 1.6 billion passengers in 2020 (as cited in TTG Asia, 2022). North America follows with over 922 million enplanements (as cited in EBP US, 2021).

Beyond air and rail, recreational vehicles , chartered buses , rideshares , and cruises move travelers. The cruise industry has seen average annual passenger growth of 7.2% since 1980 (CLIA, 2019). Automobile tourism provides flexibility for road trips and sightseeing. Emerging technologies like hyperloop could again reshape transportation. However, sustainability is now a priority. Airlines have committed to carbon-neutral growth from 2020 onward (IATA, 2021). Transportation’s future will balance innovation, experience, efficiency, and eco-friendliness.

5.2 History Of Transportation Services

5.2.1 Early Forms Of Transportation

Humans have harnessed animals to facilitate overland travel and transport goods for millennia. Horses, camels, oxen, elephants, dogs, and other domesticated creatures provided essential means of conveyance around the world before mechanized vehicles came into existence. The mobility, stamina, and load-bearing abilities of these beasts of burden fundamentally shaped trade, agriculture, warfare, and major overland migrations in human history.

The horse was one of the earliest animals that humans rode and put to work pulling wagons and chariots as early as 4000 B.C.E. (McKiken, 1990). Fast and agile, horses revolutionized mobility and spread with Indo-European migrations to become ubiquitous across Europe and Asia for transportation, cavalry warfare, and hauling. They remained vital for conquistadors colonizing the Americas. Camels, domesticated around 3000 BCE in Arabia, enabled travel and trade through vast deserts from North Africa to India and Central Asia along routes like the Silk Road (Bulliet, 1990). Their ability to endure harsh conditions with limited water and nutrition made trans-Saharan and trans-Asian trade viable.

In the heavily forested environments of Southeast Asia and Africa, elephants were prized as pack animals capable of carrying heavy loads with ease through dense vegetation. Asian elephants traveled with Roman expeditions in antiquity (Scullard, 1974). In 19th century Brazil, African elephants were imported to facilitate mining and logging operations (Bollig, 2020). Ox-drawn carts and wagons were common throughout European and Asian agriculture for millennia. Dogs pulled sleds in Arctic cultures from Siberia to North America. Global trade, migration, and conquest therefore relied heavily on beasts of burden to traverse environments impassable on foot.

While mechanization eclipsed animal power for transportation in the 20th century, many cultures still utilize these traditional techniques, especially in remote or difficult terrain. Animals remain crucial for mountain, desert, or jungle transport. Development organizations promote beasts of burden to improve rural access and livelihoods. Though no longer globally dominant, these creatures were pivotal in enabling human mobility and trade worldwide.

Beasts of burden were overtaken as a mode of transportation slowly, not all at once. The stagecoach was founded in the 1400s. While it was horse-drawn, the stagecoach itself was separated from the horses. As technology materialized, coalescing about the industrial revolution, there emerged a move from beasts of burden to more tech savvy modes of transportation. This change began with stagecoach travel on land, boats where water travel was possible, and eventually rail.

5.2.1.1 Stagecoach travel

The stagecoach , also known as the horse-drawn carriage, originated in Hungary during the 15th century. Regularly used before the availability of steam-powered rail transport , stagecoaches made scheduled trips throughout Europe. Most scheduled stagecoach routes covered approximately 60-70 miles daily until the late 18th century. The average speed of travel was only approximately 5 miles per hour.

The stagecoach era laid critical groundwork for road infrastructure and overland transportation services that enabled the Grand Tour. Eventually the narrative of the stagecoach gave way to the rise of the automobile, including the idea of horsepower in modern vehicles. Stagecoach lines established gravel and stone-paved routes between cities and towns that predated modern paved roads. They required a network of stables, inns, and other facilities to support multi-day journeys. This system of waypoints evolved into motels, gas stations, and highway rest stops catering to motorists. Stagecoach manufacturing and maintenance grew into a nascent road transport industry.

Most importantly, stagecoaches created a strong public demand for personal overland travel that autos fulfilled. While railroads surpassed stagecoaches for long-haul transport, cars and buses provided the flexibility, directness, and independence that horses lent. The Ford Model T first expanded automobile ownership beyond elites. Now industry players like Toyota, Volkswagen, and Tata Motors compete for massive global markets linked by highways. Automakers also pioneer technologies from GPS navigation to autonomous driving to enhance convenience and safety. Though vastly transformed, elements of the stagecoach experience persist in road trips’ escapism. The automobile industry remains indebted to early coaching lines that sparked a desire for personal mobility.

Looking ahead, automakers face pressures to increase sustainability amid climate change concerns. Electrification, renewable biofuels, and lighter vehicles can reduce emissions, not unlike the lower impacts of horsepower. Autonomous vehicles may reduce accidents and traffic, permitting smooth flows ideal for stagecoach horses. Regardless of power source, the freedom of the open road still attracts generations raised on automobile advertising romanticizing personalized overland adventures descendant from intrepid stagecoach journeys. The pioneering stagecoach era ignited a passion for the mobility, independence, and exploration that modern automobiles continue providing worldwide.

5.2.1.2 Water travel

Steamboats are boats propelled primarily by steam power. They were one of the earliest forms of water travel. In America, the first steamboat was designed by industrialist John Fitch in 1787. By 1812, a regularly scheduled steamboat service was implemented between New Orleans and Natchez, Mississippi. Traveling at speeds of 8 miles/hour downstream and 3 miles/hour upstream, those steamboats transported both passengers and cargo, mainly cotton and sugar (Flexner, 1993).

The early steamboat services along major rivers like the Mississippi laid the foundations for the modern cruise industry . As steam engine technology improved in the early 19th century, larger steamships began carrying passengers along coasts and across oceans, essentially as the first leisure cruise vessels. Lines like Cunard and White Star emerged, focusing on comfort and amenities for longer transatlantic voyages. The late 1800s saw dedicated cruise ships for exotic locales like the Arctic and Antarctica.

While ocean liners declined with the advent of air travel, passenger demand for leisure cruises remained strong. The cruise industry underwent massive expansion in the 1970s and 1980s with new mega-ships from companies like Carnival and Royal Caribbean offering affordable vacations. These firms tapped into the legacy of coastal steamboats’ sightseeing excursions and amenities like dining and entertainment. Today’s cruise ships leverage advanced propulsion like diesel-electric pod drives , but the spirit of escapism and hospitality persists from the era of steam, now enhanced through technological evolution.

Modern cruise lines strive to recreate the classic ambience of early 20th century ocean travel while incorporating high-tech amenities. Decor and venues evoke the elegance of transatlantic liners with neoclassical design motifs. Service and dining emulate the gracious hospitality of legendary ships. Traditional accouterments like shuffleboard endure alongside VR experiences, robot bartenders, and water parks. Yet sustainability challenges loom, much as coal-fired boilers posed environmental issues for steamships. Overall, the immersive guest experience and nostalgia endure from steamboat days while cruising continues adapting to meet shifting consumer demands in sustainable ways. The core appeal of escaping to sea remains unchanged.

5.2.1.3 Rail Travel

The history of railroads traces back to early railways used in European mines and quarries. England inaugurated the first railroad for public use in 1825. The first railways were constructed in England in 1825 where the fee of 1 penny per mile initiated considerable demand for rail travel (Smith, 1988). Since this fare was lower than the cost of stagecoach travel, rail travel became widespread in the region.

The United States is where rail travel emerged as a mass mode of transportation that could change the way human societies functioned. The first railroad lines were built in the U.S. between 1826 and 1840. America’s first common carrier railroad, the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, was chartered in 1827. The 1840s and 1850s saw rapid U.S. railroad network expansion, connecting coastal cities and unlocking the interior (Stover, 1997).

Iconic transcontinental rail lines like the Central Pacific and Union Pacific were completed in 1869. The “Golden Age” of American railroads from the late 19th to early 20th century saw the rise of industry giants and interconnecting national networks (Schwantes & Ronda, 2008). But new challenges emerged with the Great Depression and the popularization of automobiles and air travel. A wave of mergers led to major companies like Amtrak assuming control of passenger rail in the 1970s. Deregulation sparked new efficiencies and private competition. Today, high-speed networks, urban transit, and advanced technologies are revitalizing and shaping the next evolution of railroads (Solomon, 2020).

Railroads have played a pivotal role in America’s development since their construction began in the U.S. in the early 19th century. Perhaps no event signifies that more clearly than the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869 (Stover, 1997). Before that time, travel from America’s East Coast to the West Coast entailed months-long rides in horse-drawn wagons or stagecoaches, or moving by boat southward to Panama and then crossing the Isthmus to board another vessel for a long journey up the other coast.

The 1,776 miles of track along the transcontinental railroad allowed passengers to travel in a train car from New York to San Francisco, California over a week-long period. The construction of the railroad cost roughly $60 million, equivalent to $1.2 billion in today’s economy. Despite the high costs, there were major economic benefits for passengers; before the railroad was complete, it cost nearly $1,000 to travel across the country. After the transcontinental railroad was finished, the cost was only about $150 (Schwantes & Ronda, 2008).

The transcontinental railroad helped transform California from a once-isolated state to a major force, paving the way for its rapid economic and political growth.

By the 1880s, the transcontinental railroad was shipping $50 million worth of freight each year. In addition to transporting agricultural products, mail, and raw materials from California to East Coast markets and manufactured goods from East Coast cities to the West Coast, the railroad also facilitated development of international trade. The railroad helped the U.S. achieve its position of having the single largest market in the world, facilitating rapid expansion of American industry and agriculture. By the 1890s, the U.S. had the largest, most powerful economy in the world (Solomon, 2020).

Yet, like water travel and road travel (e.g., stagecoach, automobile), there were and are concerns about rail. The eminent naturalist John Muir stated that the transcontinental railroad “annihilated” time and space in a 1872 essay (p. 767). Indeed, the railroad schedules caused drastic changes in how the U.S. marked time, ultimately resulting in the adoption of standard time zones in 1883 (Bureau of Transportation Statistics [BTS], 2023).

5.2.1.4 The Birth Of Flight

The development of powered flight in the early 20th century built upon centuries of innovations in engineering, aerodynamics, and propulsion. Renaissance artists like Leonardo da Vinci analyzed bird flight and sketched winged aircraft designs. In 1783, the Montgolfier brothers pioneered lighter-than-air balloon flight. Throughout the 1800s, intrepid inventors built and tested gliders, eventually achieving sustained piloted glides.

Pressures to conquer the skies intensified towards the turn of the century. Bicycle makers Orville and Wilbur Wright utilized wind tunnels and a lightweight gasoline engine to engineer improved wings and control systems. After years of trial and error, the Wright Flyer achieved the first controlled powered flight in 1903 near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. This milestone validated the concept of the airplane.Just over a decade later, on January 1, 1914, pilot Tony Jannus transported a single passenger aircraft across Tampa Bay, Florida. The 23-mile flight, which would later cost passengers $5.00, laid the foundation for the development of the commercial airline industry (National Air and Space Museum, 2021).

World War I greatly accelerated aircraft technology and production. Wartime need drove development of synchronized machine guns and the first all-metal planes. After the war, surplus military aircraft were adapted into the first airliners like the Ford Trimotor. Airmail services arose, charting transcontinental routes. By 1927, Charles Lindbergh completed the first nonstop solo transatlantic flight to Paris in the Spirit of St. Louis, proving the reliability of aviation.

Early passenger flights were gradual, but the Jet Age began when the de Havilland Comet entered service in 1952. Boeing’s 707 followed, making global travel routine (Simons, 2018). Airplanes have since revolutionized transportation through incredible speeds, safety, and affordability. Jet travel shrunk distances, fueled global business, and connected the world. Today, over 100,000 flights operate daily powered by high-bypass turbofans cruising near the speed of sound (Petchenik, 2020). Every flight traces back to the Wright brothers’ first 120-foot hop off the sands of Kitty Hawk.

5.2.1.5 Development Of Airports

Before 1940, airstrips rarely exceeded 2,000 feet at most passenger-transport airports. It was not until the development of larger passenger aircrafts, which became more common after World War II, that longer takeoff and landing distances were needed.

As air travel expanded exponentially post-World War II, airports evolved into complex multi-terminal hubs . Early grass strips and tarmacs were adequate for propeller planes. But jets required long, reinforced runways and extensive lobbying for infrastructure funding. Major projects like New York’s Idlewild, the LAX theme building, and Denver’s tented roof reimagined airports as landmarks. Terminal designs facilitated easier passenger flow. Airport hotels and shopping concourses redefined air travel as a consumer experience.

Today’s mega-airports integrate extensive logistics from baggage systems to air traffic control (ATC) . Open 24/7, they are self-contained cities. Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta serves about 105 million passengers annually (Villamizar, 2024). This makes Atlanta’s airport the busiest in the world. Beijing Capital, Dubai, Tokyo Haneda, London Heathrow, and Hong Kong follow as the world’s busiest. Airports enable the vast scale of modern aviation. The multifaceted airport now embodies the manifold workings of mass transportation in the jet age.

More than 100 airports now facilitate the transport of at least 10 million passengers per year. Nearly half of these airports are in the U.S. (Bovenizer, 2024). With 107.4 million passengers in 2018, the Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International airport is the world’s busiest, and has since experienced strong growth post-pandemic (Villamizar, 2024).

As the world began to emerge from the grip of COVID-19, the travel industry, particularly the aviation sector, experienced a robust resurgence (Bovenizer, 2024). The pandemic had initially grounded flights and led to stark declines in airport traffic, fundamentally disrupting global travel. However, as vaccination rates increased and international borders started reopening, there was a marked surge in demand for air travel. Airports around the world adapted quickly, implementing enhanced safety protocols and leveraging technology to streamline processes and ensure passenger safety. This adaptation not only restored passenger confidence but also positioned airports as key facilitators of the travel recovery.

The rebound was driven by pent-up demand for both leisure and business travel. Many individuals were eager to resume face-to-face interactions and travel experiences that had been put on hold. Airlines expanded their networks and increased flight frequencies to cater to the recovering demand, often focusing on domestic routes initially before gradually expanding to international services. This resurgence was not without challenges, as the industry grappled with new health regulations, fluctuating travel restrictions, and the logistical complexities of ramping operations back up. Nevertheless, the recovery of flight travel showcased the resilience and adaptability of the aviation industry in the post-pandemic era.

5.2.1.6 Car Rental Emerges as a Global Player

The origins of the modern car rental industry trace back to the early 20th century as automobiles transitioned from novelty to mass transportation. Entrepreneurs realized that travelers needed accessible, affordable access to cars upon reaching destinations to fully explore areas beyond public transit’s reach. By renting vehicles, visitors could independently journey to regional sights, hotels, and entertainment venues. Car rental thus became integral to motor tourism.

The first documented car rental operation emerged in Omaha in 1916 (Brown, 2020). Within a few years, car rental pioneer Walter Jacobs recognized leisure demand in Florida, establishing business renting Model Ts and Cadillacs to wintering tourists. Companies quickly arose renting vehicles from Florida to Los Angeles as car ownership remained limited. Renters offered convenience for seasonal or short-term visitors. Early rentals were chauffeured .

As automobile manufacturing scaled up in the 1920s, declining car prices enabled more families to purchase vehicles. Nonetheless, car rental remained an essential service for travelers arriving by train or bus. Tiered pricing matched various budgets. Rental offices spread near train stations, ports, and hotels to smoothly incorporate cars into trips. Brands like Red Top Cabs, Yellow Drive-It-Yourself, and Saunders Drive-It-Yourself operated small local fleets. Car rental allowed visitors to fully engage with regional attractions and amenities.

The industry grew significantly as road trips surged post-World War II alongside rising incomes and leisure time. To build supply, companies purchased used vehicles and extended economic lifecycles through reconditioning and longer rental periods. Rent-A-Car pioneered airport rentals in the 1940s to tap into fast-growing air travel. Holiday Inn then placed rental desks inside hotels, an early hospitality partnership. Customer service emphasized local knowledge and recommendations.

In 1957, Jack Taylor launched Executive Leasing in St. Louis, later renamed Enterprise. Taylor recognized neighborhood rental demand beyond airports through innovative local outreach (Enterprise, n.d.). Enterprise purchased cars from dealerships to pioneer an integrated model of used acquisition, rental, and eventual resale. Mileage limits controlled depreciation costs. Emphasizing convenience and trust built loyal local customers.

The 1960s begat rapid industry consolidation as rising car ownership constrained demand. Enterprise, Hertz, Avis, National, and Dollar grew through acquisitions of smaller regional firms. Scale brought cost efficiencies in fleet management and corporate accounts. Hertz pioneered computerized reservations in the 1970s and launched the industry’s first frequent renter loyalty program in 1987 (Hertz, n.d.). International expansion took off by the 1990s, spreading convenient car rental globally in parallel with air travel. Local player acquisition remained key to building destination networks.

By the early 2000s, the car rental landscape crystallized around dominant global brands vigorously competing for price-sensitive vacationers and business travelers. Though transformed technologically, the industry’s foundation of providing personalized freedom and flexibility to visitors endures from the earliest days of Model T sightseeing. Car rental continues adapting to satisfy public mobility needs as tastes evolve. The industry’s hospitality roots support positive travel experiences making every destination easily discoverable.

5.3 Current Landscape Of Transportation Services

5.3.1 The Major Players

5.3.1.1 Vehicle Travel

Vehicle travel, including personal cars, rideshare services, trucks, and buses, accounts for the largest share of passenger miles transported in the U.S. Over 270 million registered vehicles operate on 4 million miles of public roads (Office of Highway Policy Information, 2022a, 2022b). Ridesharing firms like Uber and Lyft have grown dramatically since launching in 2009 and 2012, respectively. Uber provided 9.44 billion rides globally in 2023 (Iqbal, 2024).

The car rental industry is perhaps the most important part of vehicle transportation in the hospitality and tourism field, yet it is often overlooked as a career pathway. This field is consolidated globally. Specifically, Enterprise, Hertz, and Avis Budget Group control over 94% of the market (Schmidt, 2024). Enterprise dominates in the U.S. with a market share over 40% through its extensive network of neighborhood locations, a strategy it honed over decades of growth through acquisitions. Advantage and Alamo are subsidiary brand options. Consolidation increased as car rental firms acquired one another or were sold to investment and private equity firms. Overall, the top players focus on loyalty programs , supply chain resiliency, and differentiated branding to stay competitive.

Automobile travel is important to tourism in domestic U.S. market segments. Yet, there are concerns that problems in this industry are causing tourism numbers to drop. For example, traffic congestion is an increasing concern in major metros. This is particularly poignant in the Pacific Northwest. Seattle drivers spend approximately 140 hours delayed each year, costing $1,624 per driver from fuel and lost time (INRIX, 2018). The second largest city in the Pacific Northwest, Portland, ranked 19th for congestion nationally and is thus similar to Seattle for cost and delay times. These issues stem from how sprawling regions force car dependence. To address this, Seattle’s transportation plan prioritizes denser neighborhoods with public transit access. Portland aims for 25% of trips to be by bicycling and walking by 2035. Rideshare and micro-mobility options like scooters have grown. Yet, high car use persists in part due to safety and security issues while walking or on public transportation (University of Washington, 2021).

Trucking is essential for freight movement. The food supply chain for restaurants and many other hospitality businesses is reliant on freight movement from trucking. U.S. trucking revenue reached $875 billion in 2021 with 3.6 million truck drivers (Placek, 2023). Trucks transport 72.5% of domestic freight tonnage (American Trucking Associations, n.d.; BTS, 2024). Major fleets include UPS, FedEx, YRC Worldwide, and J.B. Hunt. The Ports of Seattle and Tacoma facilitate regional trucking, meaning those working in major Ports (e.g., Seatac Airport) need to be aware of the importance of trucking to the U.S. economy.

5.3.1.2 Rail Travel

Global railways carried 1.6 billion tons of freight and 9 trillion passenger-km in 2019 (UIC Statistics Unit, 2023). Passenger rail dominates in Europe and East Asia. Leading operators include Deutsche Bahn, SNCF, JR East, and China Railway. High-speed rail expands rapidly, reaching over 59,000 km worldwide in 2021 (Statista Research Department, 2023b). The U.S. lags in passenger rail, with Amtrak holding a minor modal share. BNSF, CSX, Norfolk Southern, and Union Pacific lead U.S. freight rail, connecting key ports and economic hubs.

The Pacific Northwest has growing passenger rail but dominates in freight. Amtrak Cascades links Vancouver, Seattle, Portland, and Eugene with over 380,000 annual riders (Washington State Department of Transportation [WSDOT], 2022), while a proposed high-speed rail line is projected to attract 1.8 million annual riders (Saltman, 2017; WSDOT, 2023). Sounder and MAX light rail expand regional transit. BNSF and Union Pacific are major freight railroads in the region, linking to the ports. Seattle’s Airport Link light rail eases airport access. Rail enables efficient freight movements between the Northwest’s agricultural, industrial, and natural resource regions. High-speed rail plans envision faster links to Vancouver, B.C.

5.3.1.3 Water Travel

Maritime shipping carries over 80% of global trade by volume (UN Trade and Development, n.d.). The top 5 carriers by capacity are Mediterranean Shipping, Maersk, COSCO, Hapag-Lloyd, and ONE (Alphaliner, 2024). Global port throughput reached 25,000 million tons in 2021, led by Shanghai, Singapore, Shenzhen, Ningbo-Zhoushan, and Guangzhou (Shanghai International Shipping Research Center, 2021, as cited in Nanjin Deers Industrial Co., 2022). Cruise lines saw 28.5 million passengers globally pre-pandemic in 2019, dominated by Carnival, Royal Caribbean, and Norwegian (CLIA, 2019).

The Pacific Northwest’s inland and deepwater ports facilitate regional commerce . The ports of Seattle and Tacoma together form the U.S.’s third largest container gateway, enabling trade with Asia (Washington Public Ports Association, n.d.). Seattle’s cruise industry rebounded to over 1 million passengers in 2022 after the pandemic freeze (Swift, 2024). Bellingham, Olympia, and Vancouver, U.S. also host cruises. Ferries remain vital for transit serving communities like Seattle, Victoria, and Alaska. Fishing, cargo, and recreational boating thrive given the Northwest’s natural marine access.

5.3.1.4 Airline Travel and Airports

Commercial aviation transported 4.5 billion passengers on 38 million flights globally in 2019 before the pandemic (IATA, 2020). Top airlines by capacity include American, Delta, United, Southwest, and China Southern (Centre for Aviation, 2021). The U.S. accounts for one-third of global flights (Mala, 2022). Key airports are Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta, Beijing Capital, Dubai, Tokyo Haneda, and London Heathrow. Emerging markets lead growth; air traffic doubles every 15 years (ADB Safegate, 2017).

Seattle-Tacoma International Airport is the Pacific Northwest’s major air hub. Pre-pandemic it served 51 million passengers, including flights by Alaska, Delta, Southwest, and United (Port of Seattle, n.d.). Portland and Vancouver airports also provide regional flights. Boeing manufactures jetliners locally near Seattle and employs over 170,000 people across the U.S. (Boeing, n.d.). Aerospace manufacturing and maintenance facilities across the Northwest support the aviation ecosystem. Investments in sustainable aviation biofuels also drive local innovation.

5.3.2 Market Trends And Challenges

5.3.2.1 Vehicle Travel

The overall vehicle travel sector faces trends from electrification to autonomy. Car rentals face additional movement such as evolving mobility preferences, especially among younger travelers.

Electric Vehicle (EV) sales are projected to comprise at least two thirds of car sales globally by 2030 (Morrison, 2023). This impacts levels of vehicle travel in the tourism sector, from buses to rideshare and from rental cars to public transportation. Falling battery prices are driving adoption. However, limited model availability and high purchase costs hinder growth currently. Full autonomy remains elusive but advanced driver aids penetrate markets gradually. Ridesharing and mobility as a service disrupt ownership models. Overall, road transport decarbonization is slow compared to aviation and shipping’s commitments.

Ridesharing has further cut demand for short urban rentals, hindering the car rental industry. Travel volatility from COVID-19, economics, and geopolitics disrupted bookings throughout the global rental car industry. Rental companies emphasize Model 3 Teslas, SUVs, luxury vehicles, and subscription programs in an effort to adapt. It remains too early to tell whether these approaches are staving off competition. Rental car companies have realized their interdependence with hospitality and tourism organizations. Firms such as Enterprise and Hertz are now partnering with airlines, hotels, and loyalty programs to embed rental options across trips. However, there are fleet issues the industry is dealing with. First, there are concerns about aging vehicle fleets, which in turn increases some costs. Supply chain issues during COVID caused shortages as well. Firms are balancing brand consistency, pricing power, and agility to attract customers.

Political debates continue around automotive pollution standards, gas taxes, EV incentives, and infrastructure funding. The bipartisan infrastructure bill passed in 2021 will provide $550 billion for roads, bridges, and EV charging over 5 years (Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, 2021. However, auto emissions remain highly politicized. Concerns persist around traffic deaths, racial equity in infrastructure, and suburban sprawl patterns. Cities like Portland and Seattle grapple with managing congestion, micromobility, and parking effectively.

Figure 5.7

Car Rentals

Sign shows three car rental companies: Avis, Europcar, and Hertz./ Photo Credit: Håkan Dahlström, CC BY 2.0

5.3.2.2 Rail Travel

Passenger rail growth worldwide strains existing networks. Countries from India to Egypt to Britain debate high-speed rail expansions. However, construction costs, land disputes, and debt overhangs challenge mega-projects. Freight rail bottlenecks particularly constrain U.S. supply chains. The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also known as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (2021), earmarked $66 billion for rail (Federal Railroad Administration [FRA], 2024), but labor shortages and outdated technology constrain carriers. Intermodal rail faces competition from trucking’s flexibility. Most global railways remain state-owned, complicating private sector participation.

Despite bipartisan support for upgrades, U.S. rail policy frequently stalls. The infrastructure bill was a landmark success, but regulations on freight delays and Amtrak funding routinely spark partisan disputes. Battles over routes and eminent domain affect major projects. Community groups may oppose local high-speed plans. Rail struggles to match aviation and road transport’s emissions reductions too. But growing concern over climate impacts may provide fresh momentum if policymakers cooperate.

5.3.2.3 Water Travel

Decarbonization is reshaping marine transport. The UN aims to halve shipping emissions by 2050 (Sidenvall-Jegou et al., 2023). Near-term options include efficiency gains, alternative fuels like LNG, wind power, and shoreside electricity for ships. Ports increasingly charge for emissions. Cruise lines face growing environmental pressure too, especially in sensitive regions like the Arctic and Europe. Some ports plan shore power mandates. Travel volatility from reopening, war, and health impacts create uncertainty post-pandemic.

Water transport policy often seeks to balance environmental and economic concerns. Low-sulfur fuel rules control pollution, but raise costs. Landside port congestion prompts calls to shift freight to rail. Cruise tourism generates income but overcrowds cities like Venice. Security remains paramount following incidents like pirate attacks off Africa. As climate concerns magnify, ports, carriers, and cruises must collaborate on reducing emissions without severely disrupting trade flows and tourism.

5.3.2.4 Airline Travel and Airports

Aircraft emissions pose an existential industry challenge. Aviation committed to carbon-neutral growth from 2020 and nets-zero by 2050 (Mithal & Rutherford, 2023). Biofuels, hydrogen planes, and carbon offsets aim to meet targets. Flight shame movements threaten short-haul demand. Costs for sustainable aviation fuels (SAF) need to fall below $1.50/gal to gain viability (IATA, 2022). Many airports now offer SAF. Airline consolidation continues, while new entrants disrupt models. Digitalization enhances operations, sales, and customer experience.

Policymakers balance environmental pressures and growth needs. Airlines call for government support to meet emissions goals through SAF mandates and subsidies. Airports aim to upgrade aging terminals sustainably. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) oversees complex airspace challenges like drone and rocket launches. Security threats evolve requiring enhanced detection and information sharing. Airlines regularly debate consumer issues like seat space. Overall, coordinated efforts across the complex ecosystem are critical to maintain aviation’s benefits sustainably.

5.3.3 Government Policies

5.3.3.1 Vehicle Travel

Vehicle emissions and fuel economy standards aim to cut pollution from cars and trucks. Under the Clean Air Act (1963), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates tailpipe emissions like nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and greenhouse gases (EPA, n.d.). Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) rules mandate fleetwide miles per gallon (mpg) minimums (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, n.d.). California has special authority to set tougher auto standards under waivers. Conflicts often arise between California and automakers.

The bipartisan infrastructure bill passed in 2021 upgrades roads, bridges, rail crossings, and EV charging nationwide (Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, 2021). Federal funding through programs like the Highway Trust Fund matches state expenditures on construction and maintenance. Safety policies address seat belts, air bags, drunk driving, and crash standards. Sales incentives for EVs and fuel taxes also shape markets. Conflicts persist around funding levels and energy transition support.

Car rental regulations protect consumers, promote safety, and generate public revenue. Rental contracts must disclose terms under the Federal Trade Commission (FTC)’s Rental Car Rule (FTC Combating Auto Retail Scams Trade Regulation Rule, 2024). State laws often cap extra fees and insurance costs. The Graves Amendment shields rental firms from vicarious liability claims after accidents. Airports impose taxes and concession fees on on-site rental operators to fund infrastructure. Rental firms with older fleets must balance taxes, fees, residual values, and consumer expectations when managing inventory life cycles amid policy pressures.

5.3.3.2 Rail Travel

Rail policies aim to balance private freight companies’ interests and public rail expansions. The Surface Transportation Board oversees freight rail rates, mergers, and contract disputes (STB). Amtrak receives federal funding but struggles to upgrade aging assets. High-speed intercity projects rely on complex cost-sharing with states and railroads. Commuter rail systems [Gl] like Sounder benefit from state and local support. Grade crossing enhancements improve road safety as train volumes rise.

The Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) regulates safety, technology, and operations for interstate rail (FRA). Federal standards drive advanced train control adoption. Security oversight increased after 9/11 and rail-related terror threats globally. Funding mechanisms like the Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing program attract private investment (FRA). Tax credits incentivize short line rehab too (IRS). The infrastructure bill’s $66 billion for rail advances decarbonization goals alongside ongoing regulations and financing programs.

5.3.3.3 Water Travel

Key maritime laws include the Jones Act for domestic shipping and MARPOL for vessel pollution prevention. The Jones Act, Section 27 of the Merchant Marine Act (1920), requires U.S.-built, crewed, and owned ships for coastal and inland transport. This protects local fleets but raises costs. MARPOL mandates emissions controls in sensitive sea areas (U.S. Coast Guard, n.d.). The EPA and local authorities regulate port pollution. Security oversight ramped up after 9/11 to counter potential terrorism. Cruise regulations aim to ensure health, safety, and environmental compliance.

The bipartisan bill invests $17 billion in port infrastructure from dredging to electrification (Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, 2021). Programs like TIGER and INFRA grants fund upgrades competitively (Office of Operations, 2024). The Harbor Maintenance Trust Fund raises revenues for channel maintenance from shippers (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers). Conflicts persist around dredging, terminal automation effects on labor, shore power mandates, cruise tourism caps, and shipping emissions cuts. Ports collaborate extensively with governments, carriers, shippers, unions, and communities to balance interests.

5.3.3.4 Airline Travel and Airports

The FAA oversees airline and airport policy, regulations, infrastructure, and air traffic management. Aircraft noise, flight paths, congestion, and passenger rights involve federal oversight. Transportation Security Administration (TSA) drives security policy following 9/11 and evolving threats. DOT consumer rules address issues from bumping to lost baggage. Interstate air transportation economic policies aim for adequate competition and resources. International agreements enable global connectivity and cooperation.

FAA NextGen airspace modernization aims to cut emissions through efficient routing and descent profiles, benefiting airlines (Federal Aviation Administration [FAA], 2024b). Airport Improvement Program grants fund capacity and sustainability upgrades like electrified gates for airports (FAA, 2024a). The infrastructure bill provided $25 billion for aviation including terminal renovations (Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, 2021). Airline taxes and fees fund infrastructure projects. Policy challenges include controller staffing, funding shortfalls, drones, and accelerating decarbonization initiatives across the complex, interconnected system globally.

5.3.4 The Impact Of The Technology Sector

5.3.4.1 Vehicle Travel

Connectivity and autonomy reshape vehicles. Embedded telematics and vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communication enable smart mobility (Federal Highway Administration, 2023). Automakers integrate in-dash apps , rear seat entertainment , Global Positioning Systems (GPS) , and over-the-air updates . Autonomy progresses gradually from advanced driver aids to limited robotaxis pilots . Artificial intelligence and lidar sensing drive improvements. Big data analytics support mobility as a service integration. Major tech players across computing, telecoms, and ridesharing aim to disrupt transportation.

The technology sector lobbies intensely for incentives to spur autonomy, connectivity, and electrification. Automakers counter calls for increased privacy, security, and safety requirements around connected cars. Rural areas caution against digital divides where mobility tech leaves underserved communities behind. Cyber threats loom as vehicles become data nodes. Overall, rapid change requires proactive policy development between industry and government to maximize benefits.

Car rental leverages the on-demand economy through mobile apps and kiosks. Smartphone apps allow keyless entry to reserved vehicles. Data analytics inform pricing and optimize fleet mixes. GPS trackers monitor vehicle locations and health. Autonomous shuttle pilots aim to offer driverless rentals, beginning with predefined routes. Digitalization makes renting more convenient while generating data for targeted marketing and fleet optimization.

5.3.4.2 Rail Travel

Rail digitization focuses on optimization, automation, and predictive maintenance. Sensors throughout locomotives and infrastructure feed constant operational data to AI systems (BNSF, 2023). Computer vision inspection replaces manual track checks. Distributed power and trip optimizer systems enhance efficiency and safety. Positive train control prevents collisions, enabled by digital comms. Drones provide aerial surveillance. Automated container yards boost intermodal capacity. Technology improves yards, energy usage, car routing, and crew utilization.

Railroads collaborate with regulators to enable modern tech adoption while ensuring reliability and security. Technology investments aim to balance efficiency gains with workforce concerns over job reductions. Rural access considerations arise with optimized crew scheduling. Cybersecurity is critical for train control and dispatch communications. Overall, emerging digital rail capabilities promise safer operations, lower costs and emissions, and higher volumes. But smooth technology integration relies on industry-government collaboration and labor force reskilling.

5.3.4.3 Water Travel

Port automation improves efficiency but alters labor needs. Command centers integrate data analytics to coordinate container flow, road traffic, and equipment (Port of Long Beach, 2023). Autonomous guided vehicles replace manned yard tractors . Automated stacking cranes speed cargo handling. AI ship berthing optimization enters use in Singapore and Rotterdam. Many processes from security scanning to captaining vessels utilize automation and internet of things connectivity.

Port cybersecurity builds on legacy systems. Some authorities question workers’ long-term role amid automation. Cruise ships adopt personalization, onboard apps, entertainment tech, and cashless payments for personalized, tech-infused experiences. Technologies create value but require adaptation. Port policies aim to balance innovation with workforce stability, local community benefits, and data protections. Technology drives competitive advantages but requires prudent implementation.

5.3.4.4 Airline Travel and Airports

Aviation leads transportation in advanced digitalization. Analytics inform flight planning, aircraft routing, and predictive maintenance. Airport operations utilize robotics, AI, and virtual/augmented reality (Marr, 2019). Dynamic gear tracking prevents baggage mishaps. Biometrics ease passenger processing. In-flight entertainment, Wi-Fi, and cabin connectivity enhance experiences. Drones offer ground services and inspection. Ultimately, full automation could enable pilotless passenger aircraft.

The technology shift requires large investments and careful systems integration. Cybersecurity is paramount for flight controls and operations. Pilot associations caution against over-automation that removes human judgment and skills. Privacy issues surround data collection as airlines personalize offers with passenger profiles, travel history, and biometrics. Accessibility matters ensure equal service for disabled travelers amid digitalization. Thoughtful policies and change management will unlock aviation tech’s potential.

5.4 Rail Transportation Services

5.4.1 Overview Of Rail Transport

In many ways, railways laid the foundation for the modern tourism industry. Simply put, trains were often the most efficient means of moving people across vast expanses of land. Trains also represented a heavy-duty, fast, year-round solution to previous transportation challenges. And they eventually became the preferred option for commercial shipping. With the development of major rail companies opening up hotels in major cities, hospitality sectors emerged and rail travel became even more common.

Railroads altered physical landscapes and stimulated urban development whilst contributing to the affordability of travel. Indeed, the train was transformative in its impacts on American society. Nineteenth century essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson commented on this when he wrote, “Railroad iron is a magician’s rod, in its power to evoke the sleeping energies of land and water” (1844, para. 3).

5.4.1.1 Classifying Trains And Their Routes

Rail professionals utilize various classification systems to analyze passenger and tourism markets for effective service planning and management. Common classifications include:

Purpose of Travel

• Leisure/Tourism: Recreational trips, sightseeing, excursions.
• Business: Corporate travel, conferences, meetings. Business travelers value productivity and frequent service.
• Commuter : Routine trips to work or school. Mainly short-haul near cities, high frequency usage.

Distance Traveled

• Short-haul : Within metropolitan regions, often daily commuting up to 100 miles. Amtrak Northeast Corridor exemplifies short-haul market.
• Medium-haul : Regional intercity corridors of 100-500 miles. City pairs like Seattle-Portland or Dallas-Houston.
• Long-haul : Cross-country or overnight routes over 500+ miles. Transcontinental trains and sightseeing lines.

Class of Service

• First class : Premium amenities and seating. On U.S. long-distance routes, sleeper accommodations and meal service differentiate first class.
• Business class : Mid-level service for corporate travelers. Common in Europe.
• Economy class : Budget standard service. Makes up large majority of passenger volume globally.

Frequency of Travel

• Regular: Habitual travelers, primarily daily work commuters. Over 500,000 daily rail commuters into New York City (MTA, 2021).
• Occasional: Irregular leisure or discretionary trips. Varies seasonally with tourism demand.

Origin and Destination

• Domestic: Within the same country. Largest market segment in geographically large nations like U.S., China, Russia.
• International: Cross-border routes. Major Europe market with extensive rail networks and open borders.

Carefully analyzing rail’s diverse ridership enables operators to tailor scheduling, amenities, marketing and infrastructure. Tourism industry professionals particularly focus on maximizing leisure and sightseeing usage and revenue through relevant classifications of purpose, length, class, frequency, and origin.

Railway managers utilize granular segmentation to optimize operations, infrastructure, and strategic growth. Freight rail analyzes commodity types, shipment sizes, routing scenarios, and freight car configurations to enhance scheduling, track capacities, and pricing. Intercity passenger rail evaluates city pairs, ridership demographics, travel purposes, and service classes to guide fleet planning, amenities, and timetabling.

Metro systems consider ridership patterns, station access modes, and catchment demographics to improve multimodal connections, station facilities, and off-peak utilization. High-speed rail examines journey durations and distances between city pairs to construct competitive timetables leveraging speeds over 200 mph (Nunno, 2018). Rail tourism develops customized vintage train experiences based on client interests like skiing, wine tours, or national park packages.

The longest train ride distance is currently the Trans-Siberian Railway, from Moscow to Vladivostok. This ride features beautiful scenery including Siberian forests, the Ural Mountains, and Lake Baikal. Closer to home, Amtrak’s Coast Starlight Train goes between Los Angeles and Seattle. The 35-hour trip on a train with a windowed ceiling is known globally as one of the most scenic.

From local commuter rail to transcontinental cargo transport, railways deliver tailored services through meticulous segment analysis. This guides strategic decisions on: fleet composition to match loads and journey types; crew policies balancing cost efficiencies with safety; timetabling facilitating seamless transfers between intercity, regional, and urban rail; last-mile connections via transit, rideshare, or pedestrian pathways; station facilities catering to diverse passenger needs; and differential pricing and loyalty programs befitting varied travel budgets and frequencies. By harnessing the power of segmentation, railway leaders make every mile of track more competitive, efficient, and passenger-friendly.

5.4.1.2 Rail As A Destination

Railways have become a major segment within tourism, attracting travelers seeking scenic journeys, cultural experiences, and nostalgia. In Switzerland, demand for railway development prompted the country’s government to invest $18.1 billion in railway infrastructure between 2025-2028 (RTS, 2024). And in Canada and the United States, since 1990, the Rocky Mountaineer has drawn more than 2 million passengers seeking luxury tourist train rides (Kaisar, 2023; Rocky Mountaineer, 1999).

In the Pacific Northwest, Amtrak Cascades offers a leisurely coastal journey along Puget Sound between Vancouver, Seattle, and Portland. Ridership hit 753,000 in 2019 before the pandemic (WSDOT, 2022). Luxury cruises like the Rocky Mountaineer attract sightseers to inland mountain routes. Vintage excursion trains including the Mt. Rainier Scenic Railroad tap into nostalgia. Europe’s Eurail pass enables flexible train travel across over 30 countries. Global tourism spending on rail experiences is projected to reach $30.9 billion by 2027 as travelers seek unique, sustainable vacations (MarketsandMarkets Research, 2022). When positioned astutely, railways satisfy demand for immersive travel adventures.

To enhance rail tourism, services provide flexible booking, onboard dining and lounges, and interpretive programs highlighting local culture. Partnerships with hotels, tour operators, museums, and destinations allow holistic packages bundling accommodations, activities, and transport. Marketing showcases iconic vistas and unique services like Alaska’s glass-dome cars. Future high-speed and overnight networks may further grow rail tourism. Overall, railways bring history alive while providing an inherently participatory experience of destinations from a unique on-track perspective.

5.4.1.3 The Future, the Trends, and Rail

The global rail industry faces mounting pressures to modernize, expand capacity, improve services, and operate more sustainably. While rail remains vital for freight and passenger mobility, aging infrastructure, crowded networks, funding constraints, and shifting transportation options create complex challenges. Rail professionals involved in passenger transport, tourism services, route planning, and commercial operations navigate a landscape of increasing complexity.

One major challenge is balancing freight and passenger demands on shared corridors. Current infrastructure limitations cause delays when fast passenger trains are stuck behind slower, longer freight trains. For example, the Alaska Railroad’s Coastal Classic train averages just 37mph due to cargo interference (Jennings, 2017). Timetable conflicts constrain efficiency and service quality. Adding dedicated passenger tracks involves steep costs and land disputes. Congested urban corridors like Chicago require strategic scheduling and cooperation to minimize freight versus passenger delays (Schwartz, 2012).

Limited route expansion options compound capacity issues. Opportunities for new high-speed rail corridors face financial, political, and land use barriers. Proposed projects in California and Texas stalled amid opposition. Even scaling up conventional Amtrak services on existing lines encounters challenges obtaining track access rights from private freight railroads who own nearly all U.S. tracks outside the Northeast. Passenger rail professionals must balance fleet utilization and timetabling creatively on capacity-constrained networks shared with robust freight volumes.

Outdated equipment also poses major problems. Amtrak’s fleet averages over 20 years old, hampering reliability, speed, and customer experience (BTS, 2012). Replacement parts for aging locomotives and rolling stock are scarce, causing service disruptions when equipment breaks down. Amtrak’s Acela refurbishment provides higher speeds and passenger comfort, but most routes lack funding for upgrades. Private U.S. freight carriers invest in modern locomotives, but outdated track infrastructure causes bottlenecks. Rail professionals manage maintenance and capital replacement judiciously to extract maximum value from aging assets.

Passenger rail also competes with low-cost airlines and flexible cars. Travelers increasingly demand WiFi, power outlets, gourmet meals, and sleek designs rather than utilitarian transport. Amtrak’s contemporary interiors and mobile apps aim to attract riders through enhanced experience. Tourism lines like the Alaska Railroad offer immersive sightseeing journeys. But aging equipment hampers competitiveness on many routes. Rail customer service employees provide hospitality within technical constraints. Creativity and customer focus are essential.

Workforce issues around training, scheduling, and culture add to rail’s challenges. Railroad jobs require extensive technical expertise honed over years (BNSF Railway, 2024). Retirements shrink this knowledge base while new workers may lack interest. Inflexible schedules, seniority systems, and union contracts constrain modernization for some railroads. Building more diverse, adaptable workforces adept in customer service and technology is critical. Companies balance technology gains and labor concerns to avoid job cuts or resistance to change. Investing in skills helps retain expertise amid retirements.

Safety and security demands grow too. Rail professionals ensure compliance through crew training, maintenance rigor, technology adoption, and cross-industry coordination. Infrastructure upgrades funded by the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, 2021) aim to reduce collisions, emissions, and delays through improved grade crossings, tracks, and bridges (FRA, 2022, 2024). However, technical training and change management are still essential to maximize worker and passenger safety. Security oversight also increased following rail-related terrorist attacks and threats worldwide.

In summary, rail professionals today navigate constrained, aging networks shared by competing priorities of freight transport, passenger mobility, and tourism. Creative timetabling, customer focus, industrial relations, strategic capex, sustainable technology adoption, and cross-sector collaboration are imperative to deliver reliable, high-quality services that meet surging demand. The railways’ future relies on the passion and expertise of dedicated personnel rising to present-day challenges.

5.5 Today’s Taking Flight Industry (Airlines and Airports)

The Taking Flight industry (i.e., airline, airport, aviation) has connected our world for more than a century. This sector of hospitality and tourism has overcome challenges and grasped opportunities to revolutionize travel. Today, the global airline industry consists of more than 5,000 airlines operating approximately 39,000 aircrafts (Supply Chain Management Outsource, 2019). In 2017, the world’s airlines cracked the 4-billion passenger mark for the first time (Statista, 2024). By 2023, the industry employed 11.3 million people, contributing over $700 billion to global GDP (Aviation Benefits Beyond Borders, n.d.).

Figure 5.9

American Airlines Boeing 737

The United States has the world’s largest air travel market, with 666 million passengers in 2021 (Statista Research Department, 2023a). To meet the high demand, U.S. American passenger airlines are some of the world’s largest, with American, United, and Delta ranked among the world’s largest. Indeed, the world’s largest airline by fleet size and passengers serviced is American Airlines, based in the United States. Several factors explain the airline dominance in the U.S. market, mainly the country’s large population, geographic positioning, and economic power. Combined with the lack of a high-speed passenger rail network, these three factors create enormous demand for domestic flights, which is usually the only feasible option for long-distance travel.

“These numbers would indicate that the skies are becoming an increasingly crowded space. According to FlightRadar24, who tracks aircraft around the world [and is based in Sweden], there are over 16,000 planes in the air at any given time on peak traffic days” (TravelWeek, 2017, para. 5).

Number of Scheduled Passengers Boarded by the Global Airline Industry from 2004 to 2022. / Image Credit: Ezra Leigh for WA Open ProfTech, © SBCTC, CC BY 4.0

5.5.1 Classifying Airplanes, Airports, And Flight Routes

There are numerous ways to classify this industry. Airline size, routes, home country, locations serviced, and many other ways exist and are used by industry professionals. Furthermore, the airport industry is a separate entity than the airline industry. Tourists may not recognize this difference but industry professionals need to.

Flight routes are one method for differentiating airlines and airports. Airport managers undertake extensive segmentation projects to optimize complex interconnected airline networks. Meanwhile, airlines utilize hub-and-spoke systems built around flow patterns to maximize their profits while hopefully helping passengers reach their destinations most easily. Connection times and loyalty programs allow airlines to differentiate consumers, and subsequently they can tailor services toward premium long-haul travelers. Low-cost carriers notice the customers that the primary carriers often overlook and market the lowest rates. These low cost carriers institute yield management techniques such as the elimination of seat classes to meet consumer demand at specific price points. Furthermore, by targeting short, point-to-point trips, they can appeal to price-driven leisure passengers.

Regional airlines support major airline networks by providing flows from smaller markets. Cargo carriers operate at night for time-definite global package deliveries. Charter services customize flights for groups headed to popular vacation spots, athletic events, and corporate retreats. Business jet operators focus on flexible on-demand flights for wealthy travelers and corporate executives. Staffing, maintenance, and ground operations are similarly segmented between pilots, technicians, and customer service teams based on specialized expertise.

Airport managers also monitor passenger types, origins, dwell times, and ground transport needs to efficiently design terminals, concessions, and landside access from rail networks to rideshares. Advanced analytics further empower dynamic real-time segmentation. Overall, aviation’s complex ecosystem relies on multi-layered segmentation across operating models, route structures, passenger demographics, and operational personnel to maximize safety, profitability, and the travel experience.

5.5.2 The Future, the Trends, and Taking Flight

Several major trends will impact the next era of air transportation. Aircraft electrification aims to reduce emissions alongside sustainable aviation fuels. Higher aircraft productivity through new designs and materials increases efficiency. Enhanced passenger experience via connectivity, amenities, and space optimizes comfort. Streamlined security and contactless technology ease airport stress. Rise of smart airports with automation and artificial intelligence improves operations. Drones and air taxis open urban air mobility. Pandemic recovery continues by restoring confidence. Alliances between global players spread networks and services. Volatility from energy prices, politics, and economic fluctuations persist. Agile leadership steers aviation through headwinds as this integral sector continues to transform travel and trade worldwide.

5.5.3 Career Opportunities in Aviation

The airline, airport, and aviation industry offers dynamic, challenging, and rewarding career paths. Airlines need pilots, flight attendants, mechanics, ground handlers, customer service reps, analysts, managers, and executives. Airports require operators, technicians, administrators, planners, controllers, police, fire rescue, and specialty workers. Manufacturers hire engineers, technicians, logistics experts, human resource and finance personnel. Government aviation agencies need air traffic controllers, safety inspectors, and policy-makers. Beyond technical roles, the industry needs creative marketers, IT specialists, lawyers, and accountants. A passion for aviation coupled with the right qualifications and training can launch a stellar career. This industry constantly evolves, but will always need talented, dedicated professionals.

5.6 Car Rental

Car rental provides essential mobility for hundreds of millions of people annually. The industry serves travelers without vehicles, business people on trips, and owners awaiting repairs or claims. The $104 billion global industry is dominated by the U.S., which will generate $29.9 billion in 2023 (Bonafide Research & Marketing, 2023). Major firms such as Enterprise, Hertz, and Avis Budget Group control over 94% of U.S. rentals through brand families like Enterprise, Alamo, Dollar, and Budget (Schmidt, 2024).

Rental cars offer convenient personalized transportation for diverse circumstances. The car rental industry seeks hospitality professionals but there are few higher education programs

5.6.1 Classifications within the Industry

Numerous characteristics help classify the varied rental car industry. Rental location divides between airport, local neighborhood, and remote outbound rentals. Car class spans economy compacts to premium SUVs and luxury vehicles. Rental duration ranges from daily to multi-month terms. Technology splits traditional counter service from new app-based platforms. Customer types include leisure tourists, business accounts, and insurance replacements. Partnerships with hotels and airlines target deals. Granular segmentation maximizes inventory utilization.

5.6.2 Rental Car Industry as a Career Path

Rental car professionals require customer service aptitude, sales abilities, and operational expertise. Training programs at major firms like Enterprise, Avis, and Hertz groom managers, incorporating hands-on education in sales, marketing, finance, fleet management, and leadership. Enterprise’s highly-regarded program hired 8,500 college grads in 2019, earning repeated top employer recognition (Auto Remarketing, 2019). Rental careers teach small business strategies in a dynamic service industry.

5.6.2.1 Basic Policies Professionals Should Know

Standard policies are instrumental in ensuring the smooth and efficient operation of car rental services. Professionals need to memorize the basic requirements for renting a car as well as knowing the internal process for the company they work for.

Customers must meet a minimum age requirement (some states require age 21, while others require age 25), possess a valid driver’s license, and have a credit card to rent a vehicle in the U.S. (FINN, 2023). Accessibility to locations is integral and professionals need to know the routes to access the locations and customer vehicles.

All contracts need to include liability coverage options. Driving without insurance in the U.S. is not legal, and many customers do not own insurance.

Most companies offer a sleuth of technological advancements such as a digital check-in system, accessibility via mobile apps, or keyless access to vehicles.

Each company should have a proper fleet of vehicles. Maintaining these assets is normally the job of management. This means safety recalls should be monitored closely and addressed promptly. Demand data, depreciation models, and strategic acquisition partnerships need to be a part of the asset management policies. The implementation of a rate structuring strategy should strike a balance between market demand, overhead costs, and residual values. This is revenue management as well as yield management adherence.

Finally, corporate rates can be complex. All of the aforementioned may be unique to a company. Management needs to understand rate agreements as well as policy agreements based on corporate agreements.

Overall, well-defined policies ensure consistency and enhance the overall customer experience.

5.6.3 The Future, the Trends, and Car Rental

Rental cars evolve with shifting mobility. Partnerships embed rental options across trips and consumer ecosystems. Electrification increases, especially in urban centers. Autonomous vehicles could enable pilotless rentals. The sharing economy disrupts ownership models while peer-to-peer networks augment supply. While new modes emerge, rentals provide personalized, convenient transport under travelers’ full control. Customer expectations and mobility innovations will shape the future.

5.7 Ferries And Ships As Water Transportation Services

A ferry is a vessel used to transport passengers and/or vehicles across a body of water on a regular schedule. As a part of the public transportation system of many coastal cities and islands, ferries allow direct transit between points at costs significantly lower than bridges or tunnels (Pickens, 2019).

According to Interferry, “the global ferry industry is similar in size to the commercial airline industry, transporting approximately 4.27 billion passengers per year, plus 373 million vehicles (including cars, buses and trailers)” (2019, para. 3).

5.7.1 Water Transportation As A Destination

5.8 Public Transportation Services

5.8.1 Overview Of Public Transportation

Public transportation systems are crucial infrastructures in modern societies, providing an efficient, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly mode of transport for millions of people daily. In the United States, public transportation is a diverse network encompassing buses, trains, subways, light rail, and other modes, each serving the unique needs of various urban, suburban, and rural communities. This overview will explore the state of public transportation in the U.S., with references to global examples for a comparative perspective.

In the United States, public transportation is managed at the local or regional level, with varying degrees of federal funding and oversight. The country’s vast geographical spread and the prevalence of car culture have shaped its public transport systems, often leading to a focus on major urban centers at the expense of smaller communities and rural areas.

Major cities like New York, Chicago, and San Francisco boast extensive public transportation networks. New York City’s Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) operates the largest subway system in the country and one of the largest in the world. Chicago’s ‘L’ (short for “elevated”) train system and San Francisco’s BART (Bay Area Rapid Transit) system are other examples of comprehensive urban public transportation. Meanwhile, some cities such as Seattle are growing their public transportation network exponentially. Some cities, particularly those in the southwest, have instead focused on roadways with public transportation taking a backseat when it comes to development.

Outside these large urban centers, public transportation can be less frequent and less interconnected. Many medium-sized cities and suburban areas rely heavily on bus services, which might not provide the same level of coverage or frequency as urban subway or train systems. Rural areas in the U.S. often have very limited public transportation options, leading to a reliance on personal vehicles.

One of the significant challenges facing public transportation in the U.S. is funding. Public transport often operates at a loss and requires subsidies from local, state, or federal governments. Finding a balance between affordable fares and adequate funding for maintenance and expansion remains a constant struggle.

Another challenge is the integration of different modes of transportation and ensuring accessibility for all, including those with disabilities. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (1990) has been instrumental in making public transportation more accessible, but gaps still exist, especially in older transit systems and in less urbanized areas.

In response to these challenges, there have been innovations and shifts in public transportation. For example, some cities are exploring or implementing Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems , which provide bus services with dedicated lanes and priority traffic signaling to offer a faster, more efficient service. Light rail systems, which are smaller and more flexible than traditional trains, have also gained popularity in cities looking to expand or improve their public transit infrastructure.

Globally, public transportation takes on various forms and levels of complexity. Countries like Japan and South Korea are renowned for their efficient and extensive train networks, with Japan’s Shinkansen (bullet train) being a model of high-speed rail travel. European cities often combine comprehensive subway systems with extensive bus and tram networks, as seen in London’s Underground and the Berlin U-Bahn and S-Bahn systems.

In terms of innovation, some countries have made significant strides. For instance, Singapore’s public transportation system is lauded for its efficiency and integration, with a strong focus on technology and user-friendly services. Similarly, Dutch cities like Amsterdam have developed world-class cycling infrastructure, recognizing bicycles as a vital component of public transport.

The environmental impact of public transportation is a critical consideration, especially in light of climate change concerns. Generally, public transportation is more environmentally friendly than individual car usage, as it reduces greenhouse gas emissions per capita. In the U.S. and globally, there is a growing trend towards greener public transportation options, such as electric buses and trains powered by renewable energy sources.

The future of public transportation in the U.S. and worldwide also points towards increasing digitization and the use of smart technology. Mobile ticketing, real-time tracking of buses and trains, and the integration of various modes of transport through smart apps are becoming more common, enhancing the convenience and efficiency of

Public transportation in the U.S., while facing unique challenges, is an essential part of the nation’s infrastructure, offering numerous benefits in terms of cost, efficiency, and environmental impact. Learning from global examples and embracing innovation and technology will be key to addressing its challenges and improving its reach and effectiveness. As urbanization continues and environmental concerns become more pressing, the role of public transportation in shaping sustainable, livable communities becomes increasingly vital.

5.8.2 Classifying Public Transportation Purposes, Types, And Routes

Public transportation is a component of urban area infrastructure. It offers many modes to cater to different market segments. Furthermore, geography often dictates what type of public transportation is best-suited to the region (Giuliano & Hanson, 2017; Solomon, 2020).

Each mode of public transportation offers benefits and challenges. The effectiveness of these modes of transport often depend on the location in which they operate. From the versatility of buses to the efficiency of high-speed rail, these systems collectively contribute to the accessibility and sustainability of urban environments. The future of urban transportation lies in the integration and optimization of these various modes, leveraging technological advancements to create an effective and sustainable transport ecosystem.

This section classifies the diverse types of public transport systems, highlighting their unique characteristics, purposes, and the routes they typically serve.

5.8.2.1 Bus

Buses are a versatile and ubiquitous form of public transport, offering flexibility unmatched by many other modes. In urban areas, they provide comprehensive coverage, reaching neighborhoods that other public transit cannot. Cities like Seoul and Bogotá have implemented Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems, which use dedicated lanes and priority signaling to improve efficiency and reduce congestion. BRT systems combine the capacity and speed of a metro with the flexibility of a bus system, serving as a cost-effective mass transit solution.

In rural areas, buses are often the backbone of public transport, connecting smaller towns and villages. Innovations in bus transport include the use of environmentally friendly electric or hybrid buses, as seen in cities like Los Angeles and Shenzhen, which have invested heavily in electrifying their bus fleets. Additionally, real-time tracking technology, as used in London, has greatly improved the user experience by providing accurate wait times and bus locations.

5.8.2.2 Train

Train systems, including subways, light rails, and long-distance trains, are integral to public transportation. Subway systems, like the London Underground and the New York City Subway, offer rapid transit across densely populated urban areas. These systems are characterized by high capacity, frequency, and extensive networks that cover large portions of the city.

Light rail systems, such as the Trams in Melbourne and the Stadtbahn in Germany, provide an effective balance between the larger capacity of trains and the on-street flexibility of trams. Long-distance trains, exemplified by the Amtrak network in the U.S., connect cities and regions, offering an alternative to air and road travel. High-speed rail systems, like France’s TGV and Japan’s Shinkansen, have revolutionized inter-city travel by drastically reducing travel times.

5.8.2.3 Ferries

Ferries provide essential transport services in cities with significant waterways, such as Seattle, Istanbul, and Sydney. They are particularly important in archipelagic regions like Indonesia and the Philippines, where they are a primary mode of inter-island transport. Ferries range from small boats to large vessels carrying passengers and vehicles, offering scenic and often more relaxing alternatives to land-based commuting.

Cities like Hong Kong utilize ferries effectively to connect outlying islands with the main urban center. In Venice, the Vaporetto water buses are an integral part of the public transport system, navigating the city’s famous canals. Environmentally, ferries are evolving too, with cities like Amsterdam introducing electric ferries to reduce emissions.

5.8.2.4 Streetcars and Trams

Streetcars or trams are a traditional form of urban transport that has seen a resurgence in recent years. Systems like the Toronto streetcar system, one of the largest in North America, provide a reliable and efficient mode of transportation that integrates well with other public transit. Trams in cities like Zurich and Melbourne are renowned for their extensive networks and frequency, offering a practical solution for urban mobility. These can also be picturesque, as residents of Lisbon, Portugal, know. Tourists frequent streetcar stops in Lisbon and many other cities to take memorable photographs.

The revival of streetcars in cities like Portland, Oregon, showcases modern interpretations of this historic mode of transport, emphasizing sustainability and urban revitalization. Streetcars are also being used as a tool for economic development, spurring investment and growth along their routes.

5.8.2.5 Ride-Sharing and Taxis

Ride-sharing and taxi services have evolved to become a significant part of the urban transport ecosystem. Platforms like Uber and Lyft have transformed personal transport by providing convenient, on-demand services. These services complement traditional public transport by offering last-mile connectivity and an alternative when public transport is not available.

Cities like New York and London have extensive taxi fleets, with the iconic yellow cabs and black cabs being integral to the cityscape. Ride-sharing has also prompted innovations in carpooling and shared rides, reducing the number of vehicles on the road and contributing to lower emissions.

5.8.2.6 Cable Cars

Cable cars can be tourist attractions. They also serve as practical transport solutions in cities with challenging terrains. San Francisco’s cable cars are a historic symbol and a functioning part of the city’s transport system. Similarly, Medellín in Colombia became the first city to integrate their cable car system into the public transportation network in 2004. This complex undertaking connected hillside neighborhoods to the city center. Medellín is likely the best example of how this mode can be effectively integrated into a comprehensive urban transport system.

Cable cars are also used in mountainous regions as a means of overcoming geographical barriers, providing residents with reliable access to urban areas. For example, Sugarloaf Mountain in Rio de Janeiro’s harbor has a famed cable car over the water that is a consistent tourist draw. The use of cable cars in urban settings presents a unique solution to navigate difficult terrains while offering scenic views of the cityscape.

5.8.2.7 Bikes and Bike-Sharing

Bike-sharing programs have become a staple in cities aiming for sustainable and healthy transportation options. Cities like Amsterdam and Copenhagen are renowned for their cycling culture, with extensive bike lanes and facilities. Bike-sharing systems, such as Citi Bike in New York City and Vélib’ in Paris, offer residents and tourists alike an eco-friendly and convenient way to navigate the city.

These programs are often integrated with other public transport systems, providing last-mile connectivity. Innovations in bike-sharing include the introduction of electric bikes, expanding the accessibility and range of cycling in hilly or large cities.

5.8.2.8 Scooter Sharing

Electric scooter-sharing services have emerged as a flexible and fun way to travel short distances in urban areas. These scooters are particularly popular in cities with mild climates and flat terrains, such as those in California. Scooter-sharing programs, like Bird and Lime, have been rolled out in various cities, offering an alternative to walking and complementing existing public transport options.

While they have faced regulatory challenges, scooters represent a shift towards diverse and multimodal urban transport options. They address the need for quick, short-distance travel, alleviating congestion, and reducing dependence on cars for short trips.

5.8.2.9 Water Taxi

Water taxis offer a unique and often scenic way of traveling within and between cities. They are particularly prevalent in cities with significant waterways, such as Bangkok and Venice. In cities like New York, water taxis provide a quick and enjoyable way to travel between boroughs and are an integral part of the tourist experience. In Seattle, water taxis have connected West Seattle to the downtown core for more than 100 years.

Water taxis serve not only as a means of transport but also as a way to reduce congestion on roads and bridges, offering a tranquil commuting option. The flexibility and on-demand nature of water taxis make them a valuable component of urban transport networks.

5.8.2.10 Aerial Tramways

Aerial tramways or gondola lifts are used in specific urban contexts to navigate across geographical barriers efficiently. Cities like La Paz, Bolivia, have implemented aerial tramways as a mass transit solution to connect high-altitude areas with the city center. In New York City, the Roosevelt Island Tramway provides a unique transport solution, offering spectacular views of the cityscape.

These systems are particularly useful in hilly or mountainous urban areas, providing a viable alternative to road transport. Aerial tramways represent an innovative approach to solving urban transport challenges, especially in topographically complex cities.

5.8.2.11 Monorails

Monorails offer a futuristic and efficient mode of urban transportation. They are particularly effective in areas where space is at a premium. Cities like Tokyo and Seattle have implemented monorails to provide high-capacity transit in densely populated areas. Monorails are known for their space efficiency, often requiring less ground area than traditional rail systems.

Monorails are often used in theme parks and tourist areas for their novelty and efficiency, but they also serve as practical mass transit systems in urban environments. Their sleek design and relatively quiet operation make them an attractive option for urban transit.

5.8.2.12 High Speed Rail

High-speed rail systems represent the pinnacle of efficient, long-distance public transport. Countries like Japan, with its Shinkansen, and France, with the TGV, have developed extensive high-speed rail networks that connect major cities with travel times often competitive with air travel. These systems are characterized by their speed, comfort, and efficiency, providing a viable alternative to car and air travel for inter-city transport.

The development of high-speed rail in China has revolutionized transport within the country, connecting distant regions with rapid transit. The expansion of high-speed rail networks is seen as a key strategy in developing sustainable and efficient long-distance travel options.

5.8.2.13 Autonomous Vehicles

Autonomous vehicle , also known as driverless vehicles, may represent the future of public transportation. At a minimum, these vehicles have the potential to transform urban transport. Pilot projects in cities like Phoenix and Singapore are exploring the use of autonomous buses and taxis, assessing their safety and integration with existing transport systems and infrastructure.

Autonomous vehicles could revolutionize public transport by providing flexible on-demand services while reducing the need for personal car ownership. They offer the promise of a future with less congestion, improved safety, and increased accessibility for those unable to drive.

Yet, problems have been well-noted. The integration of autonomous vehicles into urban public transportation systems presents a series of concerns that need to be addressed. Foremost, autonomous vehicles face the challenge of safety. These vehicles must navigate complex and often unpredictable city environments. These city environments include pedestrians, cyclists, and other vehicles. Ensuring their programming can handle such diversity without error is critical.

An often overlooked concern is the issue of cybersecurity. These vehicles, being highly connected, are potential targets for hackers. This raises the risk of accidents. Aligned with security are ethical concerns. There are ethical considerations in programming decision-making algorithms, particularly in scenarios where the vehicle must choose between two unfavorable outcomes.

There are societal implications. For example, there are potential job losses for public transport drivers or taxi drivers. These groups constitute powerful unions in some locations. Another societal implication is the need for significant infrastructure changes to accommodate these vehicles. A third societal implication is ensuring equitable access to this technology for all city residents, regardless of socioeconomic status.

The aforementioned challenges highlight the need for thorough testing, robust regulatory frameworks, and ongoing public engagement to successfully integrate autonomous vehicles into urban public transport systems.

 

 

References

ADB Safegate. (2017, November 7). IATA predicts top 10 air passenger markets of 2036. https://blog.adbsafegate.com/iata-predicts-top-10-air-passenger-markets-of-2036

Alphaliner. (2024, May 25). Public top 100. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://alphaliner.axsmarine.com/PublicTop100/

American Trucking Associations. (n.d.). About ATA. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.trucking.org/about-ata

Auto Remarketing (2019, May 13). Enterprise’s standing as a top entry-level employer continues. https://www.autoremarketing.com/ar/enterprises-standing-top-entry-level-employer-continues/

Aviation Benefits Beyond Borders. (n.d.). Employment. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://aviationbenefits.org/economic-growth/supporting-employment/

Baker Library Historical Collections. (2012). Railroads: The transformation of capitalism. Harvard Business School, Harvard University. https://www.library.hbs.edu/hc/railroads/index.html

BNSF Railway. (2023, May 12). Artificial intelligence: A new frontier for safety, efficiency and service at BNSF. https://www.bnsf.com/news-media/railtalk/innovation/bnsf-artificial-intelligence.html

BNSF Railway. (2024). BNSF Railway [Fact sheet]. https://www.bnsf.com/bnsf-resources/pdf/about-bnsf/fact_sheet.pdf

Boeing. (n.d.). General information. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.boeing.com/company/general-info#overview

Bollig, M. (2020). Shaping the African savannah: From capitalist frontier to arid Eden in Namibia. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108764025

Bonafide Research & Marketing. (2023, May 29). The global car rental market stood at USD 103.79 billion market size in 2022 which is projected to grow with 9.87% CAGR for 2023-28. Yahoo! Finance. https://finance.yahoo.com/news/global-car-rental-market-stood-131000795.html

Bovenizer, N. (2024, March 13). The top 10 busiest airports in the world. Airport Technology. https://www.airport-technology.com/features/the-top-10-busiest-airports-in-the-world/?cf-view

Brown, C. (2020, May 4). This is the oldest car rental advertisement you’ll ever see. Auto Rental News. https://www.autorentalnews.com/357524/this-is-the-oldest-car-rental-advertisement-youll-ever-see

Bulliet, R. W. (1990). The camel and the wheel. Columbia University Press.

Bureau of Transportation Statistics. (2012, September 10). Age of Amtrak, aircraft, and maritime vessel fleets. U.S. Department of Transportation. https://www.bts.gov/archive/publications/transportation_statistics_annual_report/2003/chapter_02/age_of_amtrak_aircraft_and_maritime_vessel_fleets

Bureau of Transportation Statistics. (2023, January 17). History of time zones and Daylight Saving Time (DTS). U.S. Department of Transportation. https://www.bts.gov/explore-topics-and-geography/geography/geospatial-portal/history-time-zones-and-daylight-saving

Bureau of Transportation Statistics. (2024, March 5). Truck tonnage used in the Transportation Services Index. U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.bts.gov/learn-about-bts-and-our-work/statistical-methods-and-policies/truck-tonnage

Centre for Aviation. (2021, April 1). American Airlines now the world’s busiest carrier. https://centreforaviation.com/analysis/reports/american-airlines-now-the-worlds-busiest-carrier-556125

Cruise Lines International Association. (2019, December 12). CLIA releases 2020 State of the Cruise Industry Outlook report [Press release]. https://cruising.org/en/news-and-research/press-room/2019/december/clia-releases-2020-state-of-the-cruise-industry-outlook-report

Department for Energy Security and Net Zero, & Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy. (2022, September 20). Greenhouse gas reporting: Conversion factors 2022. Government Digital Service, United Kingdom.  https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/greenhouse-gas-reporting-conversion-factors-2022 O.

EBP US. (2021). Failure to act: Investment in airports takes off, but bumpy skies ahead. American Society of Civil Engineers. https://infrastructurereportcard.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/failure-to-act-2021-aviation.pdf

Emerson, R. W. (1844, February 7). The young American. Mercantile Library Association. https://emersoncentral.com/texts/nature-addresses-lectures/lectures/the-young-american/

Enterprise. (n.d.). About Enterprise Rent-a-Car. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.enterprise.com/en/about.html

Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Smog vehicle emissions. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/smog-vehicle-emissions

Federal Aviation Administration. (2024a, April 3). Airport Improvement Program (AIP). U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.faa.gov/airports/aip

Federal Aviation Administration. (2024b, May 6). Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen). U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.faa.gov/nextgen

Federal Highway Administration. (2023, October 26). USDOT opens $40 million grant opportunity for connected vehicle technologies that will help save lives on our nation’s roadways. U.S. Department of Transportation. https://highways.dot.gov/newsroom/usdot-opens-40-million-grant-opportunity-connected-vehicle-technologies-will-help-save

Federal Railroad Administration. (2022, May 13). FRA announces new Bipartisan Infrastructure Law program to guide nationwide expansion and enhancement of intercity passenger rail service [Press release]. U.S. Department of Transportation. https://railroads.dot.gov/BIL

Federal Railroad Administration. (2024, May 24). Bipartisan Infrastructure Law information from FRA. U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://railroads.dot.gov/BIL

FINN. (2023, May 12). What do you need to rent a car? A complete checklist. https://www.finn.com/en-US/blog/renting/what-do-you-need-to-rent-a-car

Fleck, A. (2023, August 7). Air travel: The world’s ten busiest airports. Statista. https://www.statista.com/chart/19007/busiest-airports-by-passenger-traffic/

Flexner, J. T. (1993). Steamboats come true: American inventors in action. Fordham University Press.

FlightRadar24. (2024, May). Top 10 largest airlines in the world. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.flightradar24.com/blog/largest-airlines/

Freight Management and Operations, Office of Operations. (2024, March 13). RAISE-BUILD–TIGER discretionary grants. Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/freight/infrastructure/tiger/

Giuliano, G., & Hanson, S. (Eds.). (2017). The geography of urban transportation (4th ed.). The Guilford Press.

Graver, B., Zhang, K., & Rutherford, D. (2019, September 19). CO2 emissions from commercial aviation, 2018 [Working paper]. The International Council on Clean Transportation. https://theicct.org/publication/co2-emissions-from-commercial-aviation-2018/

Hertz. (n.d.). Hertz Rental Car history. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.hertz.ca/rentacar/abouthertz/index.jsp?targetPage=CorporateProfile.jsp&c=aboutHertzHistoryView

Howell, D., & Hadwick, A. (2017). Does virtual reality have a place in travel [White paper]. EyeforTravel. https://www.eyefortravel.com/sites/default/files/1961_eftravel_vr_whitepaper_v2.pdf

Industry High Level Group. (2019). Aviation benefits report. Airports Council International, Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation, International Air Transport Association, and International Coordinating Council of Aerospace Industries Associations. https://www.icao.int/sustainability/Documents/AVIATION-BENEFITS-2019-web.pdf

INRIX. (2018). INRIX 2018 traffic scorecard report. https://s3.documentcloud.org/documents/5733302/INRIX-2018-Traffic-Scorecard-Report-00000002.pdf

Interferry. (2019). Ferry industry facts. Retrieved April 18, 2024, from https://interferry.com/FERRY-INDUSTRY-FACTS/

International Air Transport Association. (2020). Global fact sheet. https://www.iata.org/en/iata-repository/pressroom/fact-sheets/fact-sheet-benefits-aviation-statistics/

International Air Transport Association. (2021). Annual review 2021. https://www.iata.org/contentassets/c81222d96c9a4e0bb4ff6ced0126f0bb/iata-annual-review-2021.pdf

International Air Transport Association. (2022, June 21). Incentives needed to increase SAF production [Press release]. https://www.iata.org/en/pressroom/2022-releases/2022-06-21-02/

International Air Transport Association. (2023). Global outlook for air transport: Highly resilient, less robust. https://www.iata.org/en/iata-repository/publications/economic-reports/global-outlook-for-air-transport—-june-2023/

Iqbal, M. (2024, March 1). Uber revenue and usage statistics (2024). Business of Apps. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.businessofapps.com/data/uber-statistics/

Jennings, B. (2017). Alaska railroad: History through the miles. TechScribes.

Kaisar, V. (2023, September 27). Rocky Mountaineer approaching pre-COVID passenger levels after ‘extremely strong’ 2023 season. RadioNL.com. https://www.radionl.com/2023/09/27/rocky-mountaineer-passenger-numbers-approaching-pre-covid-levels-after-extremely-strong-2023-season/

Land, E. S. (1951). Air transport facts and figures (12th ed.). Air Transport Association of America, Airlines for America. https://airlines.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/1951.pdf

Mala, A. (2022, November 8). 10 biggest airports in the United States. WorldAtlas.com. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/10-biggest-airports-in-the-united-states.html#h_30443421810501615211611408

MarketsandMarkets Research. (2022, October 13). Railway system market worth $30.9 billion by 2027 – exclusive report by MarketsandMarkets. Yahoo! Finance. https://finance.yahoo.com/news/railway-system-market-worth-30-115200887.html

Marr, B. (2019, July 26). The amazing ways Dubai Airport uses artificial intelligence. Forbes.com. https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2019/07/26/the-amazing-ways-dubai-airport-uses-artificial-intelligence/?sh=51f832442a21

McMiken, D. F. (1990). Ancient origins of horsemanship. Equine Veterinary Journal, 22(2), 73–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2042-3306.1990.tb04214.x

Mithal, S., & Rutherford, D. (2023). ICAO’s 2050 net-zero CO2 goal for international aviation: Policy update. International Council on Clean Transportation. https://theicct.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/global-aviation-ICAO-net-zero-goal-jan23.pdf

Morrison, A. (2023, September 14). Electric vehicles to pass two thirds of global car sales by 2030. University of Exeter News. Accessed May 16, 2024. https://news.exeter.ac.uk/faculty-of-environment-science-and-economy/electric-vehicles-to-pass-two-thirds-of-global-car-sales-by-2030/

MTA. (2021, November 3). ICYMI: Governor Hochul unveils commuter-first vision For Penn Station and revitalized surrounding neighborhood [Press release]. https://new.mta.info/press-release/icymi-governor-hochul-unveils-commuter-first-vision-penn-station-and-revitalized

Muir, J. (1872). Rambles of a botanist among the plants and climates of California. Old and New, 5(6), 767-772.

Nanjin Deers Industrial Co. (2022, April 7). Top 50 ports in the world 2021. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.chinarubberfender.com/top-50-global-ports-in-the-world-2021/

National Air and Space Museum. (2021, December 28). The early airlines you might not have heard of. Smithsonian. https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/early-airlines-you-might-not-have-heard

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. (n.d.). Corporate Average Fuel Economy. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.nhtsa.gov/laws-regulations/corporate-average-fuel-economy

Nunno, R. (2018, July 19). High speed rail development worldwide [Fact sheet]. Environmental and Energy Study Institute. https://www.eesi.org/papers/view/fact-sheet-high-speed-rail-development-worldwide

Office of Highway Policy Information. (2022a, February 9). Highway statistics 2022: Licensed drivers, by state, 1949-2022. Policy and Governmental Affairs, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/statistics/2022/dl201.cfm

Office of Highway Policy Information. (2022b, February 12). Highway statistics 2022: Public road mileage – VMT – Lane miles, 1900-2022. Policy and Governmental Affairs, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/statistics/2022/vmt421c.cfm

Petchenik, I. (2020, May 21). 100,000 daily flights tracked for the first time since 22 March. FlightRadar24.com. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.flightradar24.com/blog/100000-daily-flights-tracked-for-the-first-time-since-22-march/

Pickens, S. J. ( 2019). Crossing Puget Sound: From Black Ball Steamer to Washington State Ferries. America Through Time.

Placek, M. (2023, December 8). Total revenue of the trucking industry in the United States from 2014 to 2021. Statista. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/922817/trucking-industry-united-states-total-revenue/

Port of Long Beach. (2023, July 26). Digital tool boosts cargo visibility at Port of Long Beach. https://polb.com/port-info/news-and-press/digital-tool-boosts-cargo-visibility-at-port-of-long-beach-07-26-2023/

Port of Seattle. (n.d.). SEA airport statistics. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.portseattle.org/page/airport-statistics

Rocky Mountaineer. (2019). Fact sheet. https://www.rockymountaineer.com/sites/default/files/2019-10/rm_factsheet_2019.pdf

RTS. (2024, May 15). Government plans to invest over CHF16bn in Swiss rail network. SWI Swiss Info, Swiss Broadcasting Corporation. https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/life-aging/government-plans-to-invest-over-chf16-billion-in-swiss-railways-by-2028/77619543

Saltman, J. (2017, December 15). Vancouver to Seattle in an hour? Ultrafast rail study brings it one step closer. Vancouver Sun. https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/vancouver-to-seattle-in-an-hour-ultrafast-rail-study-brings-it-one-step-closer

Schmidt, E. (2024, February 1). Car rental industry statistics 2024. Consumer Affairs. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.consumeraffairs.com/automotive/car-rental-industry-statistics.html

Schwantes, C. A, & Ronda, J. P. (2008). The West the railroads made. University of Washington Press.

Schwartz, J. (2012, May 7). Freight train late? Blame Chicago. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/08/us/chicago-train-congestion-slows-whole-country.html

Scullard, H. H. (1974). The elephant in the Greek and Roman world. Thames and Hudson.

Sidenvall-Jegou, I., Laffineur, L., Spiegelenberg, F., & Madalena Leitão, A. (2023, September 22). Net-zero by 2050: Achieving shipping decarbonization through industry momentum and the new ambition at IMO. UN Trade & Development. https://unctad.org/news/transport-newsletter-article-no-108-net-zero-by-2050

Simons, G. M. (2018). Boeing 707 group: A history. Pen & Sword Aviation.

Smith, D. N. (1988). The railway and its passengers: A social history. David & Charles.

Solomon, B. (2020). Rails around the world: Two centuries of trains and locomotives. Motorbooks.

Statista Research Department. (2023a, July 17). Number of passengers on airlines worldwide in 2021, by registration country. Statista. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/537002/airline-passengers-worldwide-by-country/

Statista Research Department. (2023b, December 18). High-speed rail worldwide. Statista. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.statista.com/topics/10350/high-speed-rail-worldwide/#topicOverview

Statista Research Department. (2024, April 15). Number of flights performed by the global airline industry from 2004 to 2023, with forecasts for 2024. Statista. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/564769/airline-industry-number-of-flights/

Stover, J. F. (1997). American railroads (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press.

Supply Chain Management Outsource. (2019, August 9). How many airlines are there in the world? SCMO.net. https://www.scmo.net/faq/2019/8/9/how-many-airlines-is-there-in-the-world

Swift, C. (2024, April 4). Milestones in Seattle cruise history. Port of Seattle. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.portseattle.org/blog/milestones-seattle-cruise-history

TravelWeek. (2017, February 17). Exactly how many planes are there in the world today? Retrieved April 18, 2024, from https://www.travelweek.ca/news/exactly-many-planes-world-today/

TTG Asia. (2022, September 20). Asia-Pacific likely to lose its position as top civil aviation market: ACI. https://www.ttgasia.com/2022/09/20/asia-pacific-likely-to-lose-its-position-as-top-civil-aviation-market-aci/

UIC Statistics Unit. (2023, December 6). Traffic trends among UIC member companies in the first half of 2023. Union Internationale des Chemins. https://uic.org/com/enews/article/traffic-trends-among-uic-member-companies-in-the-first-half-of-2023

UN Tourism. (n.d.). Enabling frameworks for tourism investment drivers and challenges shaping investments in tourism (Series A, Publication #1). Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.unwto.org/investment/un-tourism-investment-guidelines-SA1

UN Trade and Development. (n.d.). Review of maritime transport. United Nations. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://unctad.org/topic/transport-and-trade-logistics/review-of-maritime-transport

UN World Travel Organization, & International Transport Forum. (2019). Transport-related CO2 emissions of the tourism sector: Modelling results. https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284416660

Union Internationale des Chemins. (2015, July 24). High-speed rail history. https://uic.org/passenger/highspeed/article/high-speed-rail-history

Union Internationale des Chemins. (2018, April 26). High-speed rail today. https://uic.org/passenger/highspeed/article/high-speed-rail-history

University of Washington, Transportation Services. (2021). 2020 transportation survey, final report. https://transportation.uw.edu/files/media/uw-annual-transportation-survey_2020.pdf

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (2024). Harbor Maintenance Trust Fund. https://usace.contentdm.oclc.org/utils/getfile/collection/p16021coll6/id/2480

U.S. Coast Guard. (n.d.). Office of Commercial Vessel Compliance (CG-CVC). Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Our-Organization/Assistant-Commandant-for-Prevention-Policy-CG-5P/Inspections-Compliance-CG-5PC-/Commercial-Vessel-Compliance/Domestic-Compliance-Division/MARPOL/

Villamizar, H. (2024, January 24). Atlanta International Airport’s strong growth in 2024. Airways Magazine. https://www.airwaysmag.com/legacy-posts/atlanta-airport-strong-growth-2023

Washington Public Ports Association. (n.d.). Freight mobility. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://www.washingtonports.org/freight-mobility

Washington State Department of Transportation. (2022). Amtrak Cascades–Ridership and capacity utilization. Retrieved May 25, 2024, from https://wsdot.wa.gov/about/data/multimodal-mobility-dashboard/dashboard/rail/utilization-ridership.htm#Yearly-Ridership

Washington State Department of Transportation. (2023). Cascadia ultra-high-speed ground transportation (UHSGT) project: 2023 legislative update. https://wsdot.wa.gov/sites/default/files/2023-06/Cascadia-Ultra-High-Speed-Ground-Transportation-Report-June2023.pdf