Chapter 2: Recreation, Park, And Leisure

Overview

Imagine you are listening to the sounds of birds chirping in a tranquil park. There is a gentle breeze rustling the leaves. You have seen people of all ages engaged in a wide range of activities today, from hiking and biking to picnicking and playing sports. As you soak in the peaceful atmosphere, you begin to realize the immense value of parks and recreation in our daily lives.

This chapter on recreation, park, and leisure studies is designed to explore the role of parks and recreation in society while highlighting the importance of leisure activities for individuals, communities, and society as a whole. You will learn about the history of parks and recreation, the different types of parks and recreational areas, and the diverse range of leisure activities available to people worldwide. Additionally, you will delve into the various benefits of leisure activities, including physical, mental, and social health, and explore the challenges and opportunities facing the recreation and park industry today. Through this chapter, you will develop a deeper understanding and appreciation of the essential role that recreation, park, and leisure play in our lives.

2.1 Introduction

In the realm of hospitality and tourism management, the convergence of recreation , park , and leisure studies forms a captivating overlap that weaves together the threads of enjoyment, connection, and experiential journeys. Furthermore, much of hospitality and tourism stems from recreation and leisure. To understand the origins of hospitality and tourism, one must first comprehend recreation and leisure.

As we explore recreation, park, and leisure studies in this chapter, we embark on a journey of understanding the intricacies of these interconnected domains, where the principles of recreation and leisure interlace with the artistry of hospitality and the allure of travel. To begin, we should understand recreation, park, and leisure independently from each other.

2.1.1 Crafting Shared Experiences through Recreation

Recreation stands as a beacon of shared experiences, drawing people into a world of enjoyment and camaraderie. The essence of recreation lies not only in the activities themselves but also in the bonds formed and memories created through participation. From team sports that forge unity to arts and crafts sessions that nurture creativity, recreation acts as a conduit for connection, fostering relationships that are nourished by the joy of shared moments.

In the context of hospitality and tourism, the significance of recreation takes on a unique dimension. Resorts (Fig.), hotels, and entertainment venues leverage the power of recreation to curate memorable guest experiences. Whether it is a seaside resort offering water sports or a mountain lodge organizing hiking excursions, these recreational offerings transform stays into vibrant stories etched in the minds of travelers.

2.1.2 Park: An Oasis of Tranquility and Exploration

Parks can extend an invitation to escape the bustle of daily life and embrace the tranquility of nature. These green sanctuaries offer respite from the urban landscape by providing spaces for relaxation, reflection, and recreation. Parks not only serve as natural havens but also as canvases for cultural events, celebrations, and community gatherings that foster community.

The synergy between parks and hospitality and tourism is a testament to their transformative power. Hospitality operations such as country clubs and city clubs rely on parks, with lush gardens and serene courtyards,to create seamless transitions from bustling cityscapes to serene retreats. Event planners often leverage parks for picturesque events. Perhaps most integral to the overlap between hospitality and tourism and parks, parks situated near tourist hotspots invite travelers to recharge amidst nature’s embrace, blurring the boundaries between exploration and rejuvenation.

2.1.3 Leisure: Where Time Becomes an Experience

Leisure, often referred to as the art of unstructured time, encapsulates the profound idea that moments of unburdened existence hold value in and of themselves. It is within leisure that individuals find the freedom to explore personal interests, whether it is pursuing a hobby, engaging in cultural enrichment, or simply savoring the art of doing nothing. In leisure, the concept of time transforms into an experience rich with meaning. Tourism is an example of an activity that can be chosen for leisure time.

The integration of leisure within the hospitality and tourism realm presents opportunities for curated encounters that resonate with the essence of exploration. From guided city strolls that reveal hidden gems to cultural workshops that immerse travelers in local traditions, leisure experiences enrich journeys.

2.1.4 Embarking on a Journey of Discovery

As we navigate the intricate landscapes of recreation, park, and leisure within the realm of hospitality and tourism, we venture into territories that evoke curiosity and excitement. The chapters that follow delve into the mechanisms of creating immersive guest experiences, the symbiosis between hospitality establishments and natural environments, and the art of crafting leisurely moments that linger in memory.

In our exploration of these domains, we uncover the ways in which recreation, park, and leisure intertwine with hospitality and tourism, shaping the contours of memorable experiences for both hosts and travelers. From shared moments of recreation to the tranquility of park retreats and the nuances of leisurely pursuits, this chapter invites us to appreciate the intricate dance between enjoyment and exploration in a world where hospitality and tourism intersect with the joys of recreation and leisure.

2.2 Historical Overview And Current Landscape Of Recreation, Park, And Leisure Services

2.2.1 Early Forms Of Recreation And Leisure

Gaining greater familiarity with the history of recreation and leisure is akin to unraveling the threads of a tapestry woven through time. The early manifestations of recreational activities were not only a means of entertainment but also vessels for social cohesion and cultural expression. In ancient civilizations, communal gatherings and festivities formed the cornerstone of leisure, fostering bonds among individuals and communities.

The ancient Greeks, for instance, embraced the Olympic Games not merely as a display of physical prowess, but as a celebration of human achievement and a platform for friendly competition. Similarly, the Romans reveled in the spectacles of gladiatorial combat and chariot races that united citizens in shared experiences of exhilaration. Such examples of early recreation evidence the importance of cultural traditions and rituals in this field.

Across civilizations, the realm of leisure was intertwined with cultural traditions and rituals . Festivals , ceremonies , and feasts were pivotal to the rhythm of life, punctuating the ordinary with extraordinary moments. These events were not only a means of celebration but also a means of preserving heritage and passing down cultural narratives .

The medieval European fairs exemplified this fusion of leisure and cultural expression. These bustling events were a nexus of commerce and entertainment. Recreation provided respite from daily routines while offering an array of experiences. The traditions of music, dance, and storytelling took center stage. These served as conduits for the transmission of societal values.

Emerging from medieval times was the Renaissance. Recreation emerged in alignment with the Grand Tour (Chaney, 1998), evidencing the symbiotic relationship and a similar historical foundation between recreation and tourism, each of which is a primary example of leisure.

The Renaissance marked a pivotal turning point, where leisure transcended mere communal activities to encompass intellectual and artistic pursuits. The birth of modernity saw an elevation of the individual experience, with leisure emerging as a catalyst for personal growth and self-discovery. The flourishing of arts, literature, and philosophy during this period bore witness to the transformative potential of leisure as a realm of exploration and enlightenment.

The early forms of recreation and leisure serve as beacons illuminating the path to understanding their current role in our societies. The tapestry of history reveals that these activities have always been essential threads woven into the fabric of human life. They’ve fostered connection, celebrated diversity, and nurtured personal growth, reflecting the very essence of what hospitality and tourism seek to offer in the present day.

As we explore the current state of modern recreation, park, and leisure services, the historical insights gleaned from early forms of leisure guide us, shaping the way we conceptualize, design, and offer experiences to individuals seeking respite, engagement, and enrichment. The continuum of leisure’s evolution, coupled with its inseparable connection to hospitality and tourism, invites us to honor the past as we shape the experiences of the future.

2.2.2 Games and Sports: Early Beginnings

The historical canvas of human societies reveals a captivating interplay between popular games and cultural dynamics. These early games, often viewed through the lens of sport , encompassed a spectrum of meanings – from symbolizing struggles between good and evil to emulating life and death scenarios. These leisurely pursuits, once intertwined with warfare, hold intriguing insights into the evolution of recreation and the emergence of contemporary leisure practices.

One illustrative example that transcends time and geography is the ancient game of tlachtli . This Central American contest not only served as a form of sport but also carried profound symbolic significance (Villanueva, 1998). Archaeological findings have illuminated the practices of tlachtli, with thousand-year-old figurines portraying ball players equipped with knee pads, gloves, and other gear tailored for the game. The historical roots of tlachtli trace back to the southern Mexican state of Chiapas, where the earliest ball courts, constructed around 700-550 B.C.E., still stand as silent witnesses to the legacy of this sport.

The narrative of tlachtli is one of resilience and revival (Villanueva, 1998). The impact of Spanish conquistadors largely erased this ancient sport, yet its echoes continue to reverberate through the revival of indigenous cultural practices. In the present day, tlachtli is more than a game; it embodies a bridge connecting ancient traditions with contemporary aspirations. Passed-down cultural knowledge, enriched by insights from researchers who decipher the sport’s rules from architectural remains, has breathed life into this once-forgotten pastime.

Tlachtli, in its ancient manifestation, encapsulates the complexities of human existence – a convergence of sport, spirituality, and societal norms. The survival of its legacy serves as a testament to the indomitable spirit of human culture. The game’s revival sparks a rekindling of indigenous pride and fosters an appreciation for the enduring significance of recreation within the larger context of society.

 

The historical evolution of games and sports in the Americas unveils a complex interplay of sociocultural factors, tracing the contours of leisure experiences that were inextricably woven into the fabric of work and community life. As we explore this narrative, we navigate a landscape shaped by shifting demographics, urbanization , and the transformative waves of industrialization. These waves of change not only altered the economic landscape but also forged the distinct patterns of leisure and recreation that have left an indelible mark on the American story. These waves of change were a prelude to the industrial revolution and a sign of things to come in leisure.

Before the reverberations of industrialization began echoing through the American economy in the 19th century, the landscape of leisure was intertwined with the rhythms of work. The types of employment, spanning from agricultural to manufacturing sectors, laid the foundation for the leisure activities embraced by Americans of the time. A spectrum of laborers, from merchants and artisans to craftsmen, designated breaks in their workday, seizing moments for camaraderie and socializing.

In a fascinating snapshot of history, these laborers set aside Saturdays and Sundays for recreation and amusement. These intervals often featured the consumption of copious amounts of alcohol, a practice that entrenched itself as a cornerstone of leisure within the Anglo-American tradition. This rhythm of leisure reverberated through time, giving rise to the concept of “St. Monday” – a day when artisans, recovering from the excesses of the weekend, either took time off or chose not to work at all.

2.2.3 Thomas Cook as the Father of Tourism

The trajectory of leisure, recreation, and park services took a transformative leap in the mid-19th century, driven by the visionary endeavors of British businessman Thomas Cook. Thomas Cook was touched upon in [crossref:1]Chapter 1[/crossref]. His alignment with the emergence of leisure was profound and is thus worthy of revisitation. With an indomitable spirit and a pioneering vision, Cook steered travel from being a mere necessity to a leisure pursuit. He reshaped the landscape of recreation and leisure experiences as we know them today.

In the annals of history, 1841 marks a pivotal moment when Thomas Cook embarked on a journey that would redefine travel and its profound impact on leisure (Smith, 1998). Cook opened the doors to the first leisure travel agency fueled by an unswerving commitment to enriching lives through tourism as a leisure activity. This audacious step paved the way for individuals to venture beyond their familiar confines and explore the world, underlining travel as a transformative agent of leisure and enrichment.

A defining facet of Cook’s endeavors was his alignment with the temperance movement. The temperance movement was a social initiative advocating for moderation in alcohol consumption. This alignment further solidified the idea of travel as a moral and character-building endeavor that aligned with the principles of self-improvement and growth. Through effective marketing techniques, Thomas Cook placed tourism intrinsically as integral to the essence of leisure.

Cook’s pioneering spirit did not stop at opening a travel agency; it extended to the travel experiences he crafted. For example, he introduced the groundbreaking concept of commercially packaged tours in 1845. This innovative approach marked a departure from the conventional notions of travel (Smith, 1998). Cook transformed travel from an arduous and mostly utilitarian journey into a meticulously curated leisure pursuit.

Cook’s inaugural commercial packaged tour was a testament to his meticulous planning. This comprehensive package included railway tickets and a printed guide. Having travel booked for you in advance, the emergence of the travel agent, was a new concept. This marked a pivotal shift. Travel now emphasized comfort, convenience, and enrichment. Travel was no longer mere transportation, rather, it was tourism.

Cook’s contributions were instrumental in redefining travel as a leisure pursuit intertwined with the human spirit of exploration. Travel ceased to be a functional act of reaching a destination; it became a transformative experience where individuals embarked on a voyage of self-discovery, cultural immersion, and connection. This is how tourism is mostly understood today.

Cook introduced an experiential narrative that transcended geographical boundaries through his endeavors. He extended the horizons of leisure by fostering the belief that travel was a means of not only escaping the humdrum of daily life but also expanding one’s horizons and horizons of understanding.

The legacy of Thomas Cook reverberates through time. His legacy casts an influence on the contemporary landscape of recreation, park, and leisure services as well as hospitality and tourism. His visionary approach laid the groundwork for the tourism industry as we recognize it today. The very concept of a curated travel experience, designed to enrich lives through exploration and engagement, bears his indelible mark.

Cook’s ethos of connecting people to the world through leisurely travel continues to shape the hospitality and tourism industry. The idea of a journey as a transformative, immersive experience is an indicator of his pioneering spirit, echoing in the diverse range of leisure experiences offered today – from curated cultural tours to adventure escapades and wellness retreats.

The evolution of leisure, recreation, and park services found an unexpected catalyst in the form of Thomas Cook’s visionary contributions. By redefining travel from a utilitarian endeavor to a leisurely pursuit, Cook reshaped the contours of recreation and leisure experiences. His commitment to enrichment, cultural exploration, and self-improvement laid the foundation for the modern travel industry, inviting individuals to embark on journeys of both geographical and personal discovery.

As we navigate the contemporary landscape of recreation and leisure, we tread upon a path illuminated by Cook’s trailblazing spirit. His legacy serves as a constant reminder that travel is not just a physical journey; it is an odyssey of the mind, heart, and soul, fostering an eternal connection between leisure and the quest for meaningful experiences.

2.2.4 Early History of Parks and Recreation Areas: Pioneering Spaces of Leisure and Respite

The history of parks and recreation areas unfurls a narrative of urban evolution, societal dynamics, and the innate human yearning for leisure and respite. The contours of this journey, spanning from the Middle Ages to the threshold of modernity, offer a profound understanding of the symbiotic relationship between recreation, park spaces, and the fabric of society. The pioneering of leisure spaces began with the evolution of urban areas including feelings of an enclosed cityscape for those residing in cities.

The Middle Ages marked an era of fortification and compact urban planning. The protective walls encircled cities were created as defensive cocoons against external threats. This architectural necessity did safeguard the city but it created implications for the allocation of space within city limits. The limited expanse available within the protective walls meant that public gardens and recreational areas found minimal footing in these urban designs.

The once-impregnable walled cities became less defensible as the echoes of gunpowder and cannon transformed the art of warfare. A migration phenomenon emerged from modern warfare. Residents were driven to venture beyond the walls and initiate the development of satellite communities. This urban expansion was a catalyst for the emergence of recreational spaces beyond the confines of the city walls. This heralded a shift toward a more expansive approach to leisure. This was in alignment with the emergence of Renaissance ideals.

The Renaissance era signaled a paradigm shift in town planning across Europe. Urban landscapes adorned themselves with wide streets, ornate buildings, and an abundance of monuments. The privileged upper class turned their attention to vast estates. These estates were adorned them with opulent gardens. Some of these gardens opened their gates to the public, bestowing upon them a taste of leisure amidst nature’s splendor. Residents sought out additional spaces once they experiences that green spaces offered.

The emergence of country clubs in history is intricately woven with the tapestry of Renaissance ideals, reflecting a response to the prevailing urban landscape and the yearning for respite from the confines of city life. During the Renaissance era, cities were often characterized by cramped quarters, lack of hygiene, and bustling thoroughfares that sometimes veered toward chaos. The very notion of a city represented a dichotomy – a space teeming with energy and opportunity, yet ensnared by the drawbacks of overcrowding and unsanitary conditions. As cities grew increasingly dingy and claustrophobic, individuals who shared similar affinities and societal strata sought solace in the creation of green spaces that aligned with their shared interests.

Country clubs emerged as havens of leisure and recreation, offering a haven that allowed individuals to escape the hustle and bustle of urban life (Moss, 2001). The allure lay not just in the escape, but in the promise of pristine expanses that stood in stark contrast to the gritty realities of city living. Within the confines of these green enclaves, the privileged could revel in open spaces that were meticulously cultivated, offering a serene sanctuary where they could indulge in their passions and forge connections with those who shared similar interests.

In this context, country clubs functioned as exclusive retreats that facilitated access to the beauty of nature while allowing individuals to maintain a distance from the often squalid conditions that characterized urban existence. The divide between the wealthy elite and the common masses was visually underscored by the boundaries of these clubs. These enclaves not only provided access to cleaner, more manicured landscapes, but they also offered a social platform where like-minded individuals could mingle, share ideas, and partake in recreational pursuits that reinforced their sense of camaraderie. The emergence of country clubs, then, represents not just a desire for green spaces, but a reflection of the Renaissance spirit – an aspiration to harmonize leisure, aesthetics, and exclusivity amidst a changing urban backdrop.

Religious groups, too, played a role in fostering leisure opportunities. Clubhouses, gardens, and shooting stands for archery practice emerged as recreational spaces used by townsfolk for amusement. These were similar to country clubs in many ways. This fusion of spiritual and recreational pursuits laid the foundation for the multipurpose nature of leisure spaces, where physical activity intertwined with communal engagement.

As the Renaissance period unfolded, parks evolved into diverse forms, each catering to unique sensibilities and purposes. Royal hunting preserves , such as the Prater in Vienna and the Tiergarten in Berlin, became testaments to the synergy between leisure and aristocratic pursuits. Ornate and formal garden parks, designed by French architects, became oases of beauty and serenity.

The English garden park, in contrast, embraced the concept of naturalistic landscapes, creating environments that mirrored the untamed beauty of nature. These parks transcended the structured formality of their counterparts, offering visitors an immersive experience in nature’s embrace, where leisure and contemplation merged seamlessly. Ideas of modern wellness were a force driving people to seek green spaces.

The 18th century saw England grapple with urban planning in the wake of recurring plague outbreaks. The correlation between overcrowding and disease was a catalyst for change, spurring efforts to create parks and convert open squares into gardens. This conscious investment in public spaces heralded a transformation in public health.

As sanitation and ventilation improved within cities, contagious disease fatalities began to decline. The emergence of accessible parks and open spaces became emblematic of progress, symbolizing a holistic approach to societal well-being. The evolution of these spaces became intrinsically tied to the narrative of public health, positioning recreation and leisure as foundational elements in the pursuit of a healthier, more balanced society.

The early history of parks and recreation areas bears witness to a profound interplay between urban dynamics, societal needs, and the pursuit of leisure. From the fortified walls of medieval cities to the expansive green realms of the Renaissance and beyond, these spaces evolved from being mere respites to becoming intricate components of holistic well-being.

As we navigate the intricate landscapes of modern recreation, park, and leisure services, we draw inspiration from the evolution of these spaces. They are not just physical environments; they are expressions of human ingenuity, embodying the desire for respite, connection, and renewal. The early history of parks and recreation areas reminds us that these spaces are not just patches of land; they are embodiments of the evolving human quest for balance, beauty, and a meaningful connection with the world around us.

2.2.5 Class Differences in Leisure

The historical narrative of recreation and leisure is intricately woven with the threads of societal structure and class disparities. Delving into the dynamics of class differences in leisure provides a multifaceted glimpse into the evolution of recreation, park, and leisure services, highlighting how access, opportunity, and experiences have been shaped by the contours of privilege and disparity. This is perhaps best exampled via the ascendance of country clubs. These clubs offered exclusivity amidst greenery.

One of the most iconic manifestations of class distinctions in leisure is embodied by the emergence of country clubs. These enclaves of exclusivity epitomize the divide between the haves and have-nots. Clubs provided an avenue for the privileged to escape the urban hustle and immerse themselves in meticulously maintained green spaces. Country clubs offered an oasis of respite in an era where cities were often synonymous with cramped living conditions and lack of hygiene.

Country clubs served as sanctuaries where they could relish the beauty of nature in pristine settings for the elite class. Such clubs were far removed from the grit and grime of urban centers. These clubs not only provided a physical escape, but they also became epicenters of social interactions. Clubs fostered connections among those who shared similar societal strata. The allure of country clubs was not just in the leisure opportunities they provided, but also in the subtle reinforcement of class divisions that they represented.

The emergence of sports and athletics also played a significant role in dissecting class distinctions in leisure, similar to country clubs in some ways. Sports often mirror broader societal stratifications even though athletics has a potential to serve as a unifying force. Sports were accessible to a narrower demographic (i.e., the aristocratic class) in their nascent stages. For example, equestrian events exemplified the convergence of leisure and aristocracy. Events involving horses were often reserved for the upper echelons of society due to price and availability of time, money, and green space.

Over time, however, the democratization of sports began to unfold. The proliferation of public schools introduced sports as an integral part of education. This gradually expanded the accessibility of sports to wider segments of the population. This marked a pivotal shift, as sports ceased to be the exclusive domain of the elite and started to permeate various strata of society. Yet, even within this transformation, vestiges of class distinctions persisted, with access to advanced training, coaching, and high-quality facilities still often favoring those with greater resources. 18th century athletics are often referred to as class-based leisurescapes, meaning it was technically leisure available in society but it was enjoyed differently depending on one’s class.

The 18th century offers a compelling window into the dichotomy of class-based leisure opportunities. In France, the disparities in leisure experiences were starkly pronounced. The upper class reveled in a panorama of amusement options throughout the week, from social visits to indulgent dining, and evenings spent at theaters, ballets, operas, and exclusive clubs. This kaleidoscope of leisure experiences was a testament to privilege and affluence.

In sharp contrast, the working class was allocated only Sundays and designated fête days for moments of leisure. Even special celebrations required the approval of the Catholic Church, underscoring the layers of control and constraint imposed on leisure activities. Economists and thinkers of the time, like Voltaire, voiced concerns about the sheer number of holidays. Such individuals argued for reductions to mitigate what they perceived as idleness and dissipation among the working masses. This was a movement toward a more balanced leisurescape.

Efforts to bridge the gaps in class-based leisure emerged as societies continued to evolve. Education, urban planning, and a growing emphasis on accessibility gradually transformed the landscape of leisure. The democratization of sports and the emergence of public parks endeavored to level the playing field, offering leisure opportunities that transcended social strata.

Today, the legacy of class-based distinctions in leisure resonates in various forms. Class dynamics still ripple through the contemporary leisure landscape even though strides have been made to broaden access. The echoes of the past serve as a reminder that the pursuit of equitable leisure remains an ongoing endeavor, where the intertwining forces of privilege, inclusivity, and societal change continue to shape the narrative of recreation, park, and leisure services. This is evidence a nuanced past is actively a driving force even today.

The narrative of class distinctions in leisure is a tapestry woven with threads of privilege, aspiration, and the dynamics of change. From the exclusivity of country clubs to the transformation of sports and the 18th-century socio-cultural prism, this journey offers a profound understanding of how leisure has not only reflected, but also shaped, societal hierarchies.

As we traverse the landscapes of modern recreation, park, and leisure services, these historical contours remind us of the imperative to craft a more inclusive and equitable future. The echoes of the past, while resonating through time, serve as beacons guiding us toward a vision where the joys of leisure are accessible to all, transcending the confines of class and celebrating the shared human quest for meaningful, enriching experiences.

2.2.6 Leisure Moves from Application to a Study

Leisure and recreation have long been important aspects of human life, but the academic study of leisure is a relatively recent phenomenon. The field of leisure studies emerged in the late 19th century as scholars from various disciplines began examining the meaning, role, and value of free time and recreational activities in modern society.

The roots of leisure studies stretch back to the late 19th century, as scholars and reformers began grappling with the impacts of industrialization and urbanization on society. In the 1880s, early researchers like Josiah Strong and Washington Gladden examined the need for wholesome recreation and leisure opportunities for working-class city residents (Regan, 1996). This laid the groundwork for the early American “playground movement,” which sought to provide parks, playgrounds and recreation facilities, especially in crowded immigrant neighborhoods.

In the 1920s and 1930s, social scientists like Robert and Helen Lynd conducted pioneering sociological research on patterns of leisure, values, and suburban lifestyles in Middletown, America (1929). Their studies revealed class-based differences in leisure attitudes and behaviors. In the 1940s, philosophers like Josef Pieper wrote on the meaning of leisure in the modern world (1952). Pieper saw leisure as an attitude of mind rather than just free time.

The academic field of leisure studies really blossomed in the postwar period. The industrial revolution and rise of a middle class with more disposable income and vacation time created a context for examining modern leisure. In the 1950s, University of California sociologist Robert Rapoport studied patterns and impacts of increased leisure time (Rapoport & Rapoport, 1975). In 1952, the first academic program in recreation and park management was established at the University of Illinois (Unzicker, 1983).

The 1960s saw expanded scholarship on defining and understanding leisure. Sociologist Sebastian de Grazia’s book Of Time, Work, and Leisure (1962) analyzed historical changes in time use and the emergence of modern leisure . In fields like social psychology, scholars like Stuart W. Cook (1962) began empirically studying effects of leisure attitudes and motivation.

Max Kaplan’s influential book Leisure in America (1960) examined meanings, ethics, and societal impacts of leisure. Kaplan saw leisure as a context for human development and democratic citizenship. Other 1960s researchers like Margaret Mead, Sally Stebbins, and Agnes F. Wells explored leisure’s role in culture, values, and quality of life .

In the 1970s and 1980s, critical turns developed in leisure scholarship. Sociologist John Neulinger (1976) defined leisure as a perceived state of freedom and intrinsic motivation. Geoffrey Godbey’s research viewed leisure as free time used freely (Dustin, 2017; Godbey, 1993). Philosopher John Kelly introduced ideas of leisure subcultures and the social world of leisure (1982). Feminist scholars like Karla Henderson and Diana Parry highlighted gender and family issues (Henderson et al., 2004). Critical theorists examined the political economy and structural constraints shaping leisure.

Debates emerged between classical leisure theorists like Robert Stebbins (1982), who saw leisure as virtuous, developmental activity, and contemporary theorists who argued leisure was freedom from work and obligation. Interdisciplinary approaches blossomed, integrating leisure with fields like geography, tourism, and developmental psychology. Increasing numbers of academic programs, journals, and associations institutionalized leisure studies.

From the 1990s onward, leisure scholarship expanded further to encompass critical race theory , postmodernism , disability studies, youth perspectives, and emerging technologies. Sociologist Thomas Goodale argued that leisure had become a dominant metaphor for modern life and values (Goodale & Godbey, 1988). Research into serious leisure , optimal experiences , and leisure’s relation to health and well-being blossomed. Global perspectives analyzed leisure patterns and meanings across cultures.

As we entered the 21st century, academic leisure studies broadened to engage with a multifaceted, evolving modern society. Topics like urban green spaces, digital media, lifestyle sports, sustainability, social justice, leisure across the lifespan, and more reflect contemporary concerns. While definitions and frameworks continue to be debated, leisure studies provides an interdisciplinary lens for examining a central aspect of human life. Robust scholarship from diverse vantage points ensures this academic field will remain relevant into the future.

2.2.6.1 Leisure Studies

Leisure studies is a discipline that examines the relationship between people and their free time. It is concerned with how people spend their leisure time, what activities they enjoy, and how leisure can contribute to their overall well-being.

One of the key themes in leisure studies is the human-nature bond (Figure below). This refers to the connection that people feel to nature and the outdoors. Leisure studies scholars argue that spending time in nature can have a number of benefits for physical and mental health, including reducing stress, improving mood, and boosting creativity. This is particularly pertinent to this chapter as we study recreation and parks.

Leisure studies can help us to understand the importance of parks and the human-nature bond. It can also help us to develop policies and programs that promote the creation and maintenance of parks and green spaces. By understanding the benefits of spending time in nature, we can create a more sustainable and healthy world for ourselves and future generations. This is the application of academic studies stemming from the field of leisure studies.

The authors below are some of the most important people who have assisted us in building a comprehension of the human-nature bond, particularly within how we relate to these green spaces in our leisure time.

2.2.7 Emergence Of Parks And Public Spaces

The history of America’s national park system contains ideals of exploration, cultural transformation, and a profound reverence for the wild landscapes that grace the nation. As settlers ventured across the expanse of the continent, an awareness emerged that the wilderness , far from being an endless resource, was finite and deserving of protection. This realization marked the inception of an enduring journey towards the creation of a system that would stand as a testament to the nation’s commitment to safeguarding its natural wonders.

The narrative of the national park system finds its nascent roots in the early periods of colonization, as European settlers encountered the vastness of the North American continent. Faced with landscapes of unprecedented grandeur and biodiversity , these explorers encountered the spectacles of untamed wilderness that would ultimately shape their perceptions of the land.

However, alongside awe and admiration, this encounter also brought forth actions steeped in superiority and fear. This marked the beginning of a complex relationship between humans and the wilderness, as settlers both marveled at its beauty and sought to exert control over its untamed forces. This paradox of reverence and domination would set the stage for the centuries-long journey towards establishing a national park system.

2.2.8 Westward Expansion and the Idea of Public Domain

America’s vast western territories came to be regarded as public domain as the United States expanded its borders. The newcomers to the Americas mostly dismissed the long-standing presence of First Nation communities. The government’s perspective on these lands was characterized by a vision of untouched wilderness, primed for resource exploitation and settlement. The concept of wilderness as public domain provided the ideological foundation for the establishment of the national park system, as these protected areas were intended to remain uninhabited and preserved in their natural state (Duncan & Burns, 2009).

The nation took a historic stride by designating Yellowstone as the country’s first national park in 1872. Yellowstone’s declaration marked a paradigm shift, heralding the idea that some landscapes were not only worthy of preservation but were also capable of becoming repositories of national pride and wonder. The concept of preservation was ignited, driven by a collective recognition that the beauty and ecological richness of these landscapes deserved to be protected for future generations (Henry, 2022; Quammen, 2016).

Mackinac Island, proclaimed the second national park in 1875, represented a pivotal moment in the nation’s conservation journey (Mackinac Island Tourism Bureau, 2023). Situated in Lake Huron, the island’s unique geological formations and diverse ecosystems captivated the imagination of the public. Its designation as a national park was a testament to the belief that natural wonders transcended regional boundaries and held significance worthy of national recognition. This early decision underscored the evolving ethos of preservation, emphasizing the intrinsic value of landscapes that bore witness to the eons and encompassed stories of geological and ecological history.

Sequoia and Yosemite, designated as the third and fourth national parks in 1890, respectively, extended the conservation movement’s reach to the majestic landscapes of the West (National Park Service [NPS], 2007, 2010). The towering sequoias of Sequoia National Park and the breathtaking vistas of Yosemite National Park became emblematic of the nation’s commitment to safeguarding treasures that stirred the human spirit. These parks not only showcased the nation’s natural grandeur but also provided windows into the intricate workings of Earth’s ecosystems. The recognition that these landscapes were irreplaceable repositories of biodiversity and geological history elevated the importance of preservation on a national scale.

Mount Rainier, declared the fifth national park in 1899, continued the legacy of conservation, embracing the grandeur of the Cascade Range (NPS, n.d.). This designation reflected a deepening understanding that the protection of diverse landscapes was a reflection of the nation’s values. Mount Rainier’s glaciers, meadows, and pristine wilderness resonated with the public’s sense of awe and appreciation for the natural world. Its designation as a national park affirmed the principle that preservation was not only an act of environmental stewardship but a testament to the nation’s commitment to fostering a harmonious relationship between humanity and nature. For this reason, locations within the park are named after John Muir and ]] Gifford Pinchot , named after them to showcase how preservation and conservation ideals can co-exist.

The journey of these early national parks exemplified the evolving understanding of the value of natural landscapes. Each designation marked a step towards a more holistic conservation ethic, emphasizing the intrinsic worth of nature and the responsibility to safeguard it for generations to come. Beginning with Yellowstone and moving to the shores of Mackinac Island to the towering sequoias, from the breathtaking vistas of Yosemite to the majestic presence of Mount Rainier, these national parks stood as emblems of a burgeoning movement that would shape the nation’s conservation ethos for years to come.

Yet, even as the foundation was laid for the national park system, conflicts of perspective emerged. First Nation communities, deeply connected to the land and viewing it as ancestral territory, saw the creation of Yellowstone as a disruption to their traditional ways of life (Stark et al., 2022). These lands were not just pristine wilderness to them; they were part of a sacred tapestry, deeply woven with cultural significance. The dispossession of these communities from their homelands revealed the tensions inherent in preserving wilderness while acknowledging the indigenous ties to these landscapes.

The dispossession of these communities from their homelands cast a shadow over the ideal of preservation. While the intent was to protect the land, the tension between conservation and the indigenous connection to the landscape surfaced in stark relief. As the national park system expanded, the echoes of this conflict reverberated, underscoring the complex interplay between preservation goals and the imperative to honor the rich history and cultural ties of the First Nation communities.

As the narrative of the national park system unfolds, it is imperative to embrace these multifaceted perspectives, recognizing the delicate balance between the call to protect nature and the imperative to honor the indigenous voices that resonate with the land’s spirit. The journey towards understanding and reconciliation continues, an essential component of an inclusive conservation ethos that harmonizes the preservation of wilderness with the preservation of diverse cultural heritage.

2.2.9 Yale’s Forestry Department, Conservationist Thought, and Gifford Pinchot

A pivotal chapter in conservation thought was scripted as the 19th century gave way to the 20th. This script was catalyzed in part by the establishment of Yale University’s groundbreaking School of Forestry (2023). This institution emerged as a crucible for shaping a new generation of conservationists. This first of its kind endowed the nation not only scientific acumen but also an unwavering passion for responsible stewardship of the nation’s natural heritage. Among the luminaries to emerge from these hallowed halls was Gifford Pinchot, a name destined to become synonymous with conservation leadership.

Yale’s School of Forestry was more than an academic institution; it was a dynamic forge where conservation principles were forged with scientific precision. Equipped with the knowledge of ecological systems and the ethical imperative to safeguard nature’s wonders, graduates of this pioneering program embarked on a journey to advocate for the preservation of America’s cherished landscapes.

In this sanctified academic environment, individuals were not just educated; they were galvanized to action. They imbibed a commitment to stewardship that transcended mere theory, underpinned by the belief that nature’s gifts were to be protected for generations yet unborn. This conviction birthed a generation of visionaries who would stand as sentinels in the movement to safeguard the nation’s natural treasures.

Among these visionary leaders was Gifford Pinchot, an individual whose impact on conservation and natural resource management reverberates through the annals of history. Pinchot, a dynamic force of nature himself, brought an indomitable spirit to the conservation ethos. His emergence from Yale’s School of Forestry was marked by an unquenchable curiosity and an ardent dedication to applying scientific principles to conservation challenges.

Pinchot’s ethos was one of pragmatic idealism. He believed that conservation was not merely an abstract concept; it was a concrete responsibility that demanded practical solutions. His vision of conservation was deeply rooted in the concept of sustainable resource management, where judicious use of nature’s bounty could coexist with the imperative of preservation. As a fervent advocate for the wise use of forests, Pinchot’s approach to conservation was imbued with a sense of balance, an approach that would profoundly influence the trajectory of the national park system and America’s broader conservation movement.

In this crucible of academia, the fusion of scientific rigor, ethical dedication, and visionary leadership forged a path forward that would shape the destiny of America’s natural heritage. Gifford Pinchot, a beacon of stewardship emerging from Yale’s School of Forestry, would go on to leave an indelible mark on the landscape of conservation, underscoring the profound impact of education and dedication in safeguarding the treasures of the nation. With this written, Pinchot’s ideals of conservation stood in stark contrast to ideals of preservation.

2.2.10 Pioneering Preservationist Ideals and John Muir

The early 20th century witnessed a profound shift in humanity’s relationship with nature. John Muir stood at the forefront of this transformation. Muir was a visionary who tirelessly championed preservationist ideals and brought them to the forefront of public consciousness. Muir’s journey from a young nature enthusiast to a dedicated advocate for wilderness preservation ignited a movement that altered the way society perceived and valued the natural world.

John Muir’s affinity for nature was ignited during his formative years, as he immersed himself in the beauty of the American landscapes that surrounded him. Muir developed a deep connection to the wilderness while growing up in the verdant backdrop of Wisconsin. He often found solace and inspiration in the pristine landscapes that beckoned him. This connection, coupled with his inquisitive nature, laid the foundation for his lifelong mission to preserve these natural wonders for future generations.

Muir’s passion for nature evolved into a resolute commitment to advocacy as he matured. Inspired by his travels to the Sierra Nevada Mountains, where he witnessed the majestic beauty of Yosemite Valley, Muir realized that the untamed wilderness faced imminent threats from encroaching development and exploitation. Muir embarked on a journey to raise awareness and rally public support for the preservation of pristine landscapes fueled by a profound desire to protect these natural sanctuaries,

Muir’s influence extended beyond his personal convictions. He recognized the power of the written word in stirring hearts and minds. Armed with his pen, he became a prolific writer and eloquent speaker (see the Sierra Club’s Writings of John Muir site). He learned to eloquently convey the inherent value of nature while urging its preservation. His essays and articles were published in prominent newspapers and magazines. The focus of his publications mostly served as a call to arms, compelling readers to reconsider their relationship with the natural world and recognize the importance of safeguarding it.

John Muir’s fervent advocacy for preservationist ideals was not confined to the realm of rhetoric. He translated his vision into tangible actions that would leave an indelible mark on the landscape of conservation. From influential collaborations to instrumental policy changes, Muir’s commitment to preserving nature took on a multifaceted form that shaped the trajectory of the preservation movement.

Muir’s unwavering dedication found a kindred spirit in President Theodore Roosevelt, who shared his passion for the natural world. Together, they embarked on a journey through Yosemite’s wilderness, engaging in a discourse that deepened their mutual understanding of the importance of preserving nature. This influential encounter not only solidified their bond but also catalyzed a series of policy decisions. These decisions would solidify the USA’s approach to the natural environment, putting the nation on a pathway to either conservation or preservation.

2.2.11 The Continuum of Exploitation, Conservation, and Preservation

The journey towards the national park system was punctuated by a continuum, oscillating between exploitation, conservation, and preservation. This trajectory reflected changing societal values and a growing recognition of the need to balance human advancement with the preservation of natural wonders. From the exploitation of resources to the conservation of landscapes and the eventual preservation of wilderness areas, the national park system encapsulated a multifaceted response to the evolving relationship between humans and nature.

The evolution of the national park system was accompanied by a chorus of voices advocating for change, from literary luminaries to pioneering environmentalists. Figures like John Muir, Henry David Thoreau, and Rachel Carson. Each played a pivotal role in shaping the discourse around nature, conservation, and the human impact on the environment. Their writings and activism resonated deeply, sparking a collective awakening to the urgent need to protect the Earth’s ecosystems .

Muir’s advocacy efforts first reached President Roosevelt. Eventually, these efforts yielded tangible outcomes including the establishment of policies vital to protecting the natural world. Muir played an instrumental role in lobbying for the creation of national parks such as the Grand Canyon and Mount Rainier. Through his efforts he showcased an ability to effect change on a grand scale. By showcasing the intrinsic value of these landscapes and emphasizing their irreplaceable worth, Muir played a pivotal role in ensuring their protection for future generations. Yet, the nation’s policies mostly aligned with conservation more than Muir’s preservationist approach.

Theodore Roosevelt’s tenure as President ushered in a new era of conservation leadership. Influenced by Gifford Pinchot (a conservationist ) and John Muir (a preservationist ), Roosevelt’s policies emphasized sustainable resource management and the responsible use of natural resources (Westover, 2016). The pair’s guidance to President Roosevelt, and the President’s eventual alliance with Pinchot and conservationism , melded in a visionary approach that aimed to strike a harmonious balance between human needs and ecological integrity. John Muir and preservationists were not pleased with the outcome but a network of land set aside as wilderness was a welcome movement toward preservationist.

Although Muir fell short in his preservationist movement in some ways, his impact on the preservationist movement extended beyond his lifetime. His relentless efforts to forward preservationist ideals inspired a generation of activists, writers, and thinkers who sought to continue his legacy. Muir’s writings and advocacy resonated with the collective consciousness, fostering a deeper connection to nature and driving societal shifts in attitudes towards conservation.

Thomas Muir’s legacy endures as a testament to the power of an individual’s passion and conviction. His tireless dedication to the preservationist cause not only shaped the landscapes of conservation but also transformed the way society perceives and values the natural world. Muir’s unwavering belief in the importance of nature and his unyielding commitment to its preservation continue to inspire generations to embrace the stewardship of our planet, reminding us that the effort to protect and cherish our environment is a timeless endeavor.

In 1916, the National Park Service was established. This marked a seminal moment in the journey towards the national park system and a network of preserved lands. This landmark development solidified the nation’s commitment to preserving and safeguarding its natural wonders for present and future generations. Often hailed as “America’s Best Idea,” (Stegner, 1983), the National Park Service emerged as a custodian of natural landscapes, cultural heritage, and the shared national identity.

As the national park system evolved, so too did the challenges it faced. The tension between preservation and accessibility emerged as a central concern. In an increasingly connected world, the desire for comfortable lodging, internet access, and modern amenities often collides with the preservation imperative. The challenge lies in reconciling the expectations of contemporary visitors with the paramount goal of safeguarding these landscapes for generations to come.

The history of America’s national park system embodies an ongoing odyssey of stewardship and balance. From the pioneers who recognized wilderness’s finite nature to the luminaries who championed conservation and preservation, the legacy of these protected landscapes is etched into the nation’s identity. As the parks face evolving challenges, the journey continues, guided by the spirit of conservation and the commitment to safeguarding the extraordinary treasures that grace the American landscape.

2.3 Career Opportunities In Recreation, Park, And Leisure Services

2.3.1 Exploring Career Pathways in Parks: From National Treasures to Local Gems

There are numerous career pathways available in the park industry. A career in parks offers an enriching and fulfilling journey that merges passion with profession for individuals who hold a deep reverence for the outdoors. The realm of park management presents a multitude of pathways that cater to a variety of interests and expertise whether someone is drawn to the grandeur of national parks, the diverse offerings of state parks , or the community-focused nature of city parks .

In the realm of parks, career pathways are not just about jobs. These careers are about stewardship, education, community-building, and the preservation of our shared natural heritage. Whether you are drawn to the grandeur of national icons, the communal spirit of local gems, or the harmonious blend of both, the world of park management offers a rich tapestry of opportunities to forge a lasting impact while following your heart’s connection to the great outdoors.

2.3.1.1 National Parks: Where Nature’s Majesty Meets Stewardship

Working in national parks is a calling that resonates with those who seek to protect and share some of the planet’s most breathtaking landscapes. You become a guardian of pristine ecosystems and storied histories as a park ranger. Each day offers an opportunity to connect visitors to the awe-inspiring wonders that define these national treasures, from leading interpretive hikes that unveil the secrets of ancient rock formations to safeguarding wildlife habitats and responding to emergencies. Specialists in fields such as biology, resource management, history, and law enforcement contribute their expertise to preserve these sanctuaries for future generations. A career in national parks isn’t just a job; it’s a dedication to nurturing the delicate balance between human exploration and nature’s integrity.

These are some common positions in national parks that students with a hospitality and tourism background could enter:

• Park Rangers :
  • Interpretive Rangers: Engage with visitors, offer guided tours, and provide information about the park’s natural and cultural resources.
  • Law Enforcement Rangers: Enforce park regulations, ensure visitor safety, and respond to emergencies.
  • Resource Management Rangers: Monitor and manage the park’s ecosystem, wildlife, and natural resources.
  • Search and Rescue Rangers: Conduct search and rescue operations for lost or injured visitors (Fig below).
• Interpretive Specialists :
  • Develop educational programs and materials to enhance visitor understanding of the park’s history, ecology, and significance.
• Biologists and Ecologists :
  • Conduct research and monitoring of wildlife populations, ecosystems, and plant life to inform conservation efforts.
• Historians:
  • Research and document the history of the park, maintain archives, and provide historical interpretation to visitors.
• Maintenance Staff:
  • Maintain trails, facilities, roads, and infrastructure to ensure a safe and pleasant experience for visitors.
• Administrative Staff:
  • Handle park operations, budgeting, human resources, and visitor services management.

2.3.1.2 State Parks: Bridging Community and Wilderness

State parks serve as gateways to natural wonders that often lie just beyond urban landscapes. A career in state park management invites you to foster connections between communities and the great outdoors. From planning educational programs that inspire a love for nature in young minds to ensuring well-maintained facilities for families to gather and unwind, state parks offer a dynamic range of roles. Your efforts contribute to a tapestry of experiences that enrich lives and strengthen the bond between people and their environment whether you are a horticulturist crafting vibrant gardens or a wildlife technician monitoring local fauna .

These are some common positions in state parks that students with a hospitality and tourism background could enter:

• Park Managers: Oversee overall park operations, including staff supervision, budget management, and resource conservation.
• Park Naturalists: Plan and conduct educational programs, nature walks, and workshops for park visitors.
• Maintenance Crews: Maintain and repair trails, buildings, campgrounds, and other park facilities.
• Wildlife and Resource Technicians: Monitor wildlife populations, conduct habitat restoration, and assist with resource management projects.
• Visitor Services and Interpretation: Engage with visitors, provide information, and lead guided tours to enhance the park experience.
• Cultural Heritage Specialists: Preserve and interpret the park’s cultural resources, including historic sites and artifacts.

2.3.1.3 City Parks: Nurturing Green Havens in Urban Landscapes

In bustling urban centers, city parks serve as vital oases where individuals can escape the hustle and bustle, reconnect with nature, and engage in recreational activities. A career in city park management carries the responsibility of curating these vibrant hubs of community life. As a recreation coordinator, you’ll orchestrate events that bring neighbors together and provide opportunities for health and wellness. Landscape architects and horticulturists transform city corners into lush havens, while administrative staff ensure the seamless operation of amenities that cater to all walks of life. Working in city parks is a chance to witness the transformative power of green spaces on urban landscapes and the lives of those who inhabit them.

These are some common positions in city parks that students with a hospitality and tourism background could enter:

• Park Supervisors: Manage the day-to-day operations of city parks, including staff oversight, scheduling, and maintenance.
• Recreation Coordinators: Plan and organize recreational programs, events, and activities for park visitors.
• Horticulturists and Landscape Architects: Design and maintain park landscapes, gardens, and green spaces.
• Facility Managers: Oversee maintenance of park facilities, playgrounds, sports fields, and amenities.
• Park Rangers and Security: Ensure visitor safety, enforce park rules, and provide assistance to park-goers.
• Community Outreach Specialists: Engage with local communities to gather input, organize events, and collaborate on park improvement projects.
• Administrative Staff: Handle park operations, permit applications, event coordination, and budget management.

2.3.2 Qualifications And Skills Required For Employment In The Industry

While qualifications may vary across park roles, certain skills and traits resonate throughout the industry. A deep appreciation for nature and a commitment to its preservation underscore all park careers. Adaptability and problem-solving abilities enable professionals to navigate the challenges of changing environments and visitor needs. Effective communication, both written and verbal, is vital for engaging with the public, sharing knowledge, and fostering a sense of community. Collaboration and teamwork are integral to working with diverse colleagues, stakeholders, and visitors.

Aspiring park professionals should also possess a strong sense of responsibility, as roles often involve the safety and well-being of both natural ecosystems and the public. Physical stamina and outdoor skills are particularly relevant for positions that require fieldwork and interaction with the environment.

Beginning in a career in parks after learning about hospitality and tourism is not abnormal. The field of parks offers a unique opportunity to leverage a diverse set of transferable skills that can enhance the quality of visitor experiences , community engagement , and overall park operations. Individuals with a background in hospitality and tourism possess several qualities that make them strong candidates for park team positions.

In essence, professionals from hospitality and tourism bring a wealth of skills that are highly applicable to park team positions. Their ability to create exceptional guest experiences, coupled with their adaptability, problem-solving prowess, and teamwork, positions them as candidates who can contribute significantly to the success of park management, community engagement, and the preservation of natural landscapes.These are some of the transferable skills that park rangers who entered the field after earning degrees in hospitality and tourism typically identify as paramount to success in their career pathways:

1. Customer Service Excellence: Professionals with hospitality and tourism experience are well-versed in delivering exceptional customer service. This skill translates seamlessly to park roles where interaction with visitors is paramount. Whether it’s providing information, guiding tours, or addressing concerns, the ability to create positive and memorable experiences enhances visitor satisfaction.
2. Communication and Interpersonal Skills: Effective communication is pivotal in both industries. Professionals from hospitality and tourism have honed their ability to communicate with diverse audiences, addressing their needs and preferences. These skills are invaluable in conveying information about park amenities, programs, and natural resources to visitors of varying backgrounds.
3. Problem-Solving and Adaptability: Hospitality and tourism professionals often encounter unexpected situations and are adept at finding swift solutions. This adaptability is crucial in parks, where unexpected challenges like weather changes or emergency situations may arise. The ability to think on their feet and make informed decisions is an asset to park team members.
4. Event Planning and Coordination: Planning and executing events, a common aspect of hospitality and tourism, aligns well with organizing park programs and activities. Professionals from the hospitality sector excel in managing logistics, coordinating schedules, and ensuring that events run smoothly, enhancing the overall visitor experience.
5. Cultural Awareness and Diversity Sensitivity: In hospitality and tourism, interacting with people from various cultural backgrounds is routine. This cultural awareness is valuable in parks where visitors come from diverse communities. Understanding different perspectives and fostering an inclusive environment is vital to successful park management.
6. Time Management and Attention to Detail: Hospitality and tourism professionals excel at managing tight schedules and paying attention to details. These skills transfer well to park roles, especially when coordinating guided tours, enforcing park regulations, and ensuring facilities are well-maintained.
7. Team Collaboration, Leadership, and Management in general: Hospitality, Tourism, and Parks professionals are in industries that require teamwork skills, leadership skills, and a general acumen for management. Individuals from hospitality and tourism can effectively collaborate with colleagues, volunteers, and stakeholders to achieve common goals. Their experience leading teams in the hospitality sector translates to effective leadership within park operations. The onus is on these professionals to manage people and situations.
8. Conflict Resolution, Negotiation, and Guest Relations: Dealing with guest concerns and resolving conflicts is part of the hospitality and tourism landscape. Negotiation skills are often a part of resolving conflicts. These skills are equally valuable in parks, where addressing visitor concerns and ensuring a positive experience contributes to visitor satisfaction and retention.

In conclusion, embarking on a career in national, state, or city parks necessitates a combination of education, qualifications, and interpersonal skills that align with the specific demands of each role. Whether protecting pristine landscapes, connecting communities to nature, or curating urban havens, those who choose to enter the world of park management find themselves immersed in a world where their passion for the environment and dedication to serving the public intersect harmoniously.

2.4 Today’s Recreation, Park, And Leisure Services

2.4.1 Overview of Recreation, Park, And Leisure Services

The realm of recreation, park, and leisure services weaves together threads of well-being, community, and enrichment in modern society. These services stand as sanctuaries of respite, spaces for connection, and avenues for personal growth as we navigate the fast-paced currents of contemporary life. This section offers a panoramic glimpse into the diverse and vibrant landscape of recreation, park, and leisure services that shape our present-day experiences, foster social cohesion, and contribute to the vitality of communities.

The services encompassed in modern recreation, park, and leisure services cater to a vast spectrum of interests and aspirations, from the heart of bustling cities to the serenity of natural landscapes. Beyond the realm of mere leisure, these offerings contribute to physical vitality, mental rejuvenation, and the strengthening of bonds within communities. The world of recreation and leisure services holds something for everyone whether it is a leisurely stroll through a local park, an exhilarating outdoor adventure, or a culturally enriching community event.

Section 2.4 moves us from historical antecedents of recreation, park, and leisure and into the myriad dimensions that constitute today’s recreation, park, and leisure services. We explore the economic significance of these activities, tracing their contributions to national and state economies. Through the lens of participation statistics, we witness the widespread engagement in various recreational pursuits and the growing allure of outdoor adventure travel. Moreover, we examine how the skills and insights garnered from the hospitality and tourism industries seamlessly integrate into park management roles, enhancing visitor experiences and community engagement.

2.4.1.1 Modern Recreation: A Period of Engagement and Growth

Recreation is more than a source of enjoyment and relaxation. Recreation has become a significant contributor to economies, a driving force for domestic travel, and a catalyst for fostering physical and mental well-being. It becomes evident that recreation’s multifaceted appeal has transformed it into a dynamic and influential facet of modern society.

Recreation has emerged as a formidable economic engine, generating substantial contributions to national and state economies. Recreation accounted for a staggering $454 billion in the United States in 2021. This constitutes approximately 1.9% of the nation’s gross domestic product (GDP) for 2021 (Bureau of Economic Analysis [BEA], 2022). This robust economic impact is not limited to the federal level.

Outdoor recreation’s share of GDP ranged from 4.8% in Hawaii to 1.3% in states like New York and Connecticut at the state level in 2021 (BEA, 2022). This economic clout underscores the fact that recreation is not merely a leisure pursuit but a critical industry that creates jobs, fuels consumer spending, and sustains local communities. Participation is so strong in recreation that it is a mega trend in modern society.

The allure of recreation activities resonates deeply with individuals from all walks of life. A remarkable 54% of Americans aged 6 and above actively participated in at least one outdoor recreation activity in 2021 (Outdoor Foundation, 2022). This impressive engagement signifies the broad appeal of outdoor experiences as a means of rejuvenating mind, body, and spirit. The top five activities (i.e., running, hiking, fishing, biking, and camping) paint a vivid picture of the diverse range of pursuits that capture the interest of modern-day enthusiasts.

Outdoor recreation is driving domestic travel and adventure. This makes the overlap between recreation, hospitality, and tourism pronounced. The compelling draw of recreation activities has played an instrumental role in the surging popularity of domestic travel within the United States (Nationwide, 2024). Outdoor adventure travel, in particular, has experienced an exponential rise in prominence. This growth signals a growing preference for experiential and nature-centric escapades. Individuals are seeking out destinations that offer opportunities for outdoor pursuits, from embarking on epic hiking trails to camping beneath starlit skies. The call of the wild, coupled with the desire to disconnect from the demands of modern life, has ignited a renewed passion for embarking on journeys that center around outdoor engagement.

The landscape of modern recreation services has evolved into a thriving and transformative force that intersects with economics, travel, and lifestyle choices. The economic significance of recreation cannot be understated, as it contributes billions to national and state economies. The participation of over half of the American population in outdoor recreation activities underscores the widespread appeal of these pursuits as avenues for holistic well-being. Moreover, the surge in outdoor adventure travel speaks to the contemporary desire for immersive and rejuvenating experiences that forge connections with nature and kindle a sense of exploration. In essence, understanding the role of recreation today entails recognizing its multifaceted impact on society, the economy, and the individual pursuit of joy and fulfillment.

2.4.1.2 Modern Parks: A Global Exploration of Preservation and Enjoyment

Parks stand as sanctuaries of nature’s beauty, cultural heritage, and shared human experiences. These expansive spaces, carefully preserved and thoughtfully curated, serve as living testimonies to our collective appreciation for the outdoors, our history, and our innate need for connection with the natural world. In this section, we embark on a journey to understand the multifaceted significance of parks today, taking a global perspective that spans national, state, and city levels.

Modern recreation, park, and leisure services are intricately woven with the threads of national, state, and city parks. From the towering majesty of national parks to the intimate charm of city parks, these spaces celebrate nature’s beauty, nurture community bonds, and enrich the lives of millions. As we continue to navigate the complexities of the modern world, these parks stand as testaments to our shared reverence for the outdoors, our heritage, and the enduring power of natural and cultural landscapes.

2.4.1.2.1 National Parks: Guardians of Natural and Cultural Treasures

A pivotal moment in the history of parks occurred on August 25, 1916, with the signing of the National Park Service Organic Act, commonly known as the “Organic Act,” by President Woodrow Wilson. This landmark legislation marked the inception of the National Park Service (NPS) , a federal agency entrusted with the stewardship and preservation of the United States’ most cherished landscapes and historic landmarks. As a custodian of national parks and monuments, the NPS shoulders the responsibility of safeguarding the country’s natural wonders and cultural heritage, ensuring that they remain accessible and unspoiled for generations to come.

Today, the U.S. National Park system has blossomed into a cornerstone of the nation’s tourism industry, welcoming an astounding 300 million visitors annually (NPS, 2023b). Among its crown jewels, the Great Smoky Mountains National Park stands as the most frequented destination, having hosted 12.9 million visitors in 2022 (NPS, 2023a). With an annual budget of approximately $4 billion, the NPS oversees a diverse array of 424 national park sites, collectively spanning a staggering 84 million acres (NPS, 2024b). Among these, the monumental Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve in Alaska emerges as a titan, covering an expansive 13.2 million acres, equivalent to around 16% of the entire national park system (National Park Foundation, n.d.). On the opposite end of the spectrum, the diminutive Thaddeus Kosciuszko National Memorial in Pennsylvania claims the title of the smallest site, occupying a mere 0.02 acres (Errick, 2014). The preservation of these treasures is not only an ode to the country’s heritage but also a testament to the value placed on natural beauty and ecological diversity.

2.4.1.2.2 A Legacy of Conservation and Forest Management: The U.S. Forest Service

The journey towards preserving and managing the nation’s forests, a vital thread in the fabric of recreation and leisure services, traces its origins to the late 19th century. In 1876, Congress birthed the office of Special Agent within the U.S. Department of Agriculture, charged with evaluating the quality and condition of the nation’s forests (Forest Service, n.d.). This momentous step laid the foundation for the subsequent creation of the Division of Forestry in 1881. A significant leap forward came with the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 (also known as the General Revision Act or the Land Revision Act), granting the President the authority to designate public lands in the West as “forest reserves,” a precursor to today’s national forests.

The stewardship of these reserves shifted in 1905 when President Theodore Roosevelt transferred their management to the newly formed Forest Service under the U.S. Department of Agriculture (Forest Service, n.d.). Gifford Pinchot, a visionary conservationist, was entrusted with its leadership. Pinchot’s tenure marked a watershed moment as he championed a decentralized structure that empowered civil servants to make conservation decisions at the local level. This strategic approach revolutionized forest management, weaving a seamless tapestry of sustainable practices and protection, thereby nurturing the delicate balance between human interaction and the preservation of pristine landscapes.

The exploration of parks today beckons us to delve into the intricate tapestry of preservation, enjoyment, and stewardship that weaves together the global landscape of national, state, and city parks. From the towering expanses of national parks to the intricate urban oases of city parks, these spaces stand as testimony to humanity’s profound connection with nature and heritage. The tales they tell transcend borders, inviting us to embark on a journey that stretches beyond time and space, nurturing the soul, and enriching our shared narrative.

2.4.1.2.3 Modern State Parks: Celebrating Local Treasures

State parks, akin to their national counterparts, have evolved into vital components of contemporary recreation and leisure services. These cherished spaces, often spanning picturesque landscapes, historical sites, and unique ecosystems, offer a closer-to-home haven for outdoor enthusiasts and community gatherings. State governments across the United States have recognized the significance of preserving these local treasures, not only for their natural beauty but also as magnets for tourism and community engagement.

In recent years, state parks have gained prominence for their role in fostering both recreation and conservation. These parks play a pivotal part in enhancing the quality of life for residents while offering visitors a chance to experience the great outdoors. According to the National Association of State Park Directors, state parks collectively welcomed over 813 million visitors in 2020 (America’s State Parks, n.d.). The allure of state parks is underscored by their accessibility, as they cater to diverse interests, from hiking and camping to bird-watching and picnicking.

2.4.1.2.4 City Parks: Breathing Spaces in Urban Landscapes

Amidst the bustling concrete jungles of urban landscapes, city parks emerge as verdant sanctuaries, serving as essential breathing spaces for residents and visitors alike. These oases of greenery offer a respite from the hustle and bustle of city life, providing a canvas for relaxation, recreation, and community cohesion. City parks have the unique ability to foster a sense of unity and belonging, forging connections between diverse individuals who converge to enjoy their serene offerings.

As cities continue to evolve and expand, the importance of city parks becomes increasingly evident. These green spaces are essential for maintaining the ecological balance of urban environments, offering a haven for local flora and fauna. Additionally, they serve as venues for cultural events, art installations, and social gatherings, weaving a tapestry of vibrant experiences. According to the Trust for Public Land (n.d.), two-thirds of Americans live within a 10-minute walk of a park, underscoring the accessibility and centrality of city parks to modern life.

2.4.1.2 Modern Leisure: Paradigms of Leisure in 21st Century Society

Leisure has taken a different path than recreation or parks as it moved into modern society. Most of leisure’s trends exist in a more academic than applied fashion.

From the 1980s onward, critical approaches also developed in leisure studies (Parr & Schmalz, 2019). Critical theorists examined how power, domination, and social structures shaped leisure opportunities. Feminist leisure scholars highlighted gender differences in leisure. Postmodern perspectives looked at leisure subjectivities and the body. Critical race theory and postcolonialism were applied to analyze ethnicity and race.

More recent trends in leisure studies reflect changing social contexts. Some examples include:

• Examining impacts of technology and digital media on recreation, travel, and tourism
• Understanding relationships between leisure and health wellbeing
• Exploring the role of urban green spaces , community gardens , parks for quality of life
• Analyzing leisure across the lifespan from childhood play to retirement
• Investigating lifestyle sports, serious leisure subcultures, and extreme sports
• Applying positive psychology and happiness research to leisure experiences
• Developing leisure education and programming for underserved groups
• Promoting social justice, inclusion, and universal access to recreation
• Focusing on sustainability, climate change, environmentalism and outdoor recreation
• Adding global and cross-cultural perspectives on leisure meanings and activities

Academically, leisure studies is an interdisciplinary field, with scholarly contributions coming from diverse social science and humanities backgrounds. Leisure research appears in journals specific to the field, like Leisure Sciences, Leisure Studies, Leisure/Loisir, Journal of Leisure Research, and others. But leisure scholarship also crosses over into publications in fields like tourism, sports studies, parks and recreation, education, gerontology , youth studies , sociology, psychology, geography, planning, and more.

The future directions of leisure studies remain open and flexible. The nature of leisure itself continues to evolve along with wider societal changes. As patterns of work, technology use, urbanization, travel, and lifestyle preferences transform in the 21st century, academics will keep exploring the meaning and role of leisure in contemporary life. The interdisciplinary tools and critical lenses of leisure studies can provide useful insights on recreation, quality of life, human development, family and community, equity and social justice, sustainability, globalization, and more. With its multifaceted frameworks, leisure studies is poised to remain a vibrant and relevant field.

2.4.2 Types Of Recreational Activities And Programs

Recreational activities take diverse forms, ranging from casual leisure pursuits to more intense and skill-based endeavors. They can be categorized in various ways – by environment, physical intensity, necessary equipment, social interaction, and more.

Outdoor recreation remains a hugely popular category, taking advantage of natural settings. This includes land-based activities like hiking, backpacking, orienteering, mountain biking, rock climbing, horseback riding, and multi-sport adventures. Water-based outdoor recreation includes swimming, snorkeling, scuba diving, surfing, whitewater rafting, kayaking, canoeing, stand-up paddleboarding, water skiing, wakeboarding, sailing, and motorboating. Snow sports are also vibrant recreational activities, including downhill skiing, snowboarding, cross-country skiing, snowshoeing, and snowmobiling.

Outdoor recreation relies on extensive public park systems, wilderness preserves, forests, mountains, rivers, lakes, oceans, and other natural environments. Programming often centers on environmental education, skill-building, wellness, and conservation. Guided activities like naturalist hikes, stargazing, birdwatching tours, and campfire talks enhance visitors’ connections with nature.

Sports and fitness are another major recreation category. This covers casual pickup games, intramural leagues, youth and adult competitive leagues, clinics, and tournaments across a spectrum of sports – basketball, baseball, soccer, football, tennis, volleyball, disc golf, and more. Fitness-oriented programming spans classes and training programs focused on cardiovascular health, strength, flexibility, dance, mindfulness, and holistic wellbeing. Community recreation centers are major providers of sports and fitness programming.

The arts offer enriching recreational programming. Options include visual arts classes and workshops in painting, photography, ceramics, jewelry-making, woodworking, and other media. Performing arts programming covers music lessons, choir and musical ensembles, dance classes, and theater workshops leading to productions. Literary arts programs involve writing seminars, poetry slams, storytelling events, and book clubs. Arts festivals and public art installations further engage local communities.

Many municipalities offer targeted recreation programming for youth, older adults, and people with disabilities. Youth programming provides supervised afterschool and summer activities to enrich education and social growth. Senior programming ranges from crafts classes to fitness activities tailored for older adults. Adaptive recreation uses specialized equipment and trained staff to serve people with disabilities.

Travel and tourism activities blend recreation with discovering new places and cultures. Popular options include cultural/heritage tourism, ecotourism, agritourism , wine tourism , culinary tourism , and more. Guided tours, themed trips, festivals and special events all help travelers engage with destinations. Experiential travel aimed at cultural immersion, adventure, and personalized enrichment is on the rise.

Lifelong learning programs on academic, vocational, or recreational topics are an important category. These range from lectures, seminars and workshops on history, science, art, finance, home improvement, and much more. Special interest clubs around hobbies like gardening, book groups, and chess provide regular chances to interact with like-minded peers while developing skills and knowledge.

Social recreation revolves around casual gatherings and structured events that bring communities together. municipal programming includes concerts, movies in the park, festivals, block parties, holiday celebrations, and entertainment series. Recreation facilities like community centers, senior centers, and clubs host dances, potlucks, game nights, craft fairs, dinner theaters, talent shows, and similar activities. Parks and recreation departments partner with public libraries, schools, businesses, civic organizations, and volunteers to provide inclusive social programming.

Technology has opened up new realms of digital recreation and social connection. Online gaming, media streaming, and interactive apps provide entertainment. Social media platforms enable networking around hobbies, advice-sharing, reconnecting with old friends, and exploring interests. Creative digital outlets like photo editing, blogging, video creation, and music mixing allow self-expression. Virtual and augmented reality expand interactive possibilities. Digital programming facilitates hybrid events, remote learning, and civic engagement.

A key consideration for recreation professionals is ensuring affordable access across the socioeconomic spectrum. Scholarships, discounted fees, joint-use agreements, outreach to underserved groups, multilingual communication, accessible design, loaner equipment, and inclusive policies help break down barriers. Building strong community partnerships and understanding diverse local needs are essential for successful public recreation. Adaptability and innovation will be ongoing necessities as recreation evolves with emerging technologies and societal changes.

2.4.3 Management And Park Maintenance

2.4.3.1 America’s National Park System

Managing America’s extensive National Park System requires a complex interplay of departments, professionals, policies, and partnerships. With over 400 park sites spanning 85 million acres, the system’s scale and diversity necessitates careful coordination. Furthermore, the National Park Service budget is approximately $4 billion and it employs a permanent staff base of 15,400 individuals. “For every $1 Congress invests in national parks, visitor spending returns over $10 to the U.S. economy” (NPS Office of Communications, 2023, para. 3).

At the helm of each park is a superintendent, who oversees all operations and staff. Superintendents must balance resource conservation, visitor access, facilities management, and partnerships. Critical duties include implementing park management plans, coordinating with other agencies, ensuring compliance with laws and regulations, managing budgets and personnel, and reporting to regional directors. Leadership, collaboration, science, and policy expertise are crucial superintendent qualifications.

Park rangers are the public face of the National Park Service (NPS), providing frontline visitor services and law enforcement (Fig. below). Interpretive rangers lead tours, give talks, provide information, and educate the public about park resources. Protection rangers enforce laws, conduct search and rescue operations, manage crowds and traffic, respond to emergencies, and ensure visitor safety. Other ranger specialties include wildlife management, resources management, firefighting, and administration. Seasonal rangers supplement the workforce during peak visitation.

Resource management and science staff assess environmental conditions, study flora and fauna , mitigate human impacts, and restore ecosystems. Experts include biologists, ecologists, botanists , hydrologists , wildlife biologists , natural resource specialists and geographic information systems analysts. They monitor air and water quality, assess endangered species, track invasive species, study diseases, and research climate change impacts (Fig below). This knowledge informs science-based decision making for sustainability.

Cultural resource professionals preserve archeological sites, historic structures, cultural landscapes, museum artifacts , and ethnographic resources . Archeologists , historians , curators , archivists and anthropologists identify, evaluate and nominate park resources for listing in the National Register of Historic Places. Ongoing research and documentation aids protection and interpretation.

Facility managers handle the NPS infrastructure portfolio including buildings, roads, trails, campgrounds, utilities, fleet vehicles and equipment. Planners forecast future facility needs and oversee construction projects. Facility operations specialists manage maintenance, housekeeping, property management, energy/water systems, groundskeeping, janitorial services and repairs. They ensure safe, code-compliant sites.

Administrators provide critical business operations support across human resources, budget/finance, contracting, information technology, and public affairs. They coordinate policies, procurement, records, agreements, public involvement, and government compliance. Centralized administrative programs enable efficient systemwide oversight.

Park education staff connect visitors to resources through talks, school programs, digital media, publications, visitor centers, and more. Curricula are designed to inspire lifelong learning and conservation action beyond park boundaries. Accessibility, inclusiveness, and contextualization ensure relevant, meaningful engagement with diverse audiences.

By working across disciplines, parks aim for integrated, holistic management. Interdepartmental collaboration and team building fosters systemwide thinking. Best practices and data are shared via online platforms and communities of practice. Advisory committees and partners provide outside expertise. Thanks to professionalism across all levels, parks can fulfill their inspiring yet enormously complex mission.

Looking forward, park managers will be challenged by rising visitation, climate impacts, expanding infrastructure demands, and constrained budgets. Maintaining relevance and building constituency support will be crucial. Continual workforce development and student pipelines can bring fresh perspectives. Leveraging technology for sustainability and access offers opportunities. Through coordinated effort that harnesses collective knowledge, our shared national park legacy can be safeguarded for generations to come.

2.4.3.1 State Park Systems in the USA

State park systems represent vital public green spaces and recreational resources across the United States. While narrower in scope than national parks, state park networks face similar management complexities stemming from ecological diversity, recreational demands, facilities upkeep, and lean budgets.

Most states have government agencies overseeing state park operations and planning. Agency duties include acquiring land, developing facilities, setting policies, managing capital projects and budgets, and promoting tourism. Oversight comes from commissioners, boards, or directors appointed by governors or legislatures. Supporting foundations often aid fundraising.

Park operations are led by managers or superintendents overseeing staff that provide law enforcement, maintenance, programs, visitor services, natural resource management, and administration. Larger parks may be divided into sectors with area supervisors. Managers have extensive duties running their park like a small city.

Visitor services/interpretation staff offer educational talks, tours, exhibits and junior ranger programs. They orient visitors to park resources and build appreciation. Law enforcement rangers handle public safety, emergencies, SAR, rules compliance, and managing crowds. Maintenance teams handle infrastructure upkeep and repairs. Natural resource specialists conduct resource management, monitoring and ecosystem restoration.

Behind the scenes, administrators oversee personnel, budgets, concessions, contracts, IT, public involvement, capital projects, and government liaison. They ensure operational efficiency, policy compliance, and fiscal responsibility. Centralized administration provides systemwide oversight and shared services.

Reaching beyond park boundaries, agency community partnership coordinators build relationships with schools, tourism promoters, Friends groups, recreation providers, land managers, municipalities and other stakeholders. Outreach, special events and volunteerism expand engagement.

Heavily utilized parks may have over 100 permanent staff, while remote parks function with just a manager and few rangers. Seasonal workers and embedded partners like universities boost capacity. Ongoing training and leadership development equip the workforce to grow professionally despite lean state budgets.

Looking ahead, state park systems face ecological threats, aging infrastructure, and shifting recreation patterns. Climate resilience, relevance to urban populations, equitable access, youth engagement, and public transit connections are rising priorities. Partnerships, philanthropy, fee-based revenue, grant funding, and interagency collaboration provide management support to keep these cherished places thriving.

With careful stewardship of human, financial, and natural resources, state park leaders can sustain these conserved public lands. Blending innovation with institutional knowledge will be key. By adapting creatively to emerging challenges, state park systems can continue providing cherished natural escapes that renew people’s spirits for generations to come.

2.4.5 Global influence of the U.S. National Park System

Some international conservation scholars and practitioners have criticized the U.S. national park system (Dowie, 2009). The parks have been called too protectionist, exclusionary, and old-fashioned in their approach Furthermore, some professionals in lesser developed countries have had difficulty emulating the U.S.’s park system network for various reasons, which has been frustrating and led some to refer to the NPS’s approach to park management as irrelevant to them. Finally, there are contentious claims in the history of NPS. First Nations rights people have begun using the term “Yellowstone model” in reference to the removal of people from a landscape for preservation purposes. Taking into account these problematic qualities, the global spread of the U.S. National Park system has had mixed impacts, particularly in recent decades.

Today, there are 6,500 national parks across nearly 100 countries; explore the Protected Planet site for parks and protected areas. These parks support wildlife conservation and ecotourism but many also have a tainted legacy of contributing to land violations and indigenous injustices. A good example of how a network of global national park systems are important on a worldwide scale could include tiger tourism and the parks set aside for their habitation.

2.4.5.1 Tiger Tourism in India

Tiger habitats span 10 countries across Asia – India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, China, and Russia. India is home to approximately 80% of the world’s wild tigers. It is also the primary destination for tiger tourism (Karanth et al., 2017).

By the late 1980s the tiger’s universal appeal was attracting numerous affluent and middle-class visitors to India’s tiger reserves. The framework for these reserves, which now number 53 spanning some 70,000 km² across the country, was established in 1973 under Project Tiger, an ambitious initiative administered by the Indian Government’s National Tiger Conservation Authority. Tiger reserves now receive >1 million visitors on an annual basis. For decades, tiger tourism provided considerable economic benefits to communities around the reserves, thereby boosting social support for tiger conservation (Karanth et al., 2017).

However, pressures and disturbances from tiger tourism escalated in ensuing decades. By 2012, tiger conservationists filed numerous court cases, seeking more regulation of visitors. The result was a series of legal battles with the tourism industry and reserve managers, ultimately concluding with temporary bans prohibiting entry by tourists to core areas of the reserves (Karanth & Karanth, 2012).

At present, high-end tiger tourism occupies less than 10% of the area spanning 70,000 km² in tiger reserves. Considering that all of India’s potential tiger habitats span 380,000 km², the presence of tiger tourism accounts for only 1-2% of the big cat’s entire country-wide habitat.

If managed correctly, tiger tourism can expand tiger habitats and augment their populations outside government-owned reserves. Some proponents of tiger tourism are pushing for wildlife tourism operators to gain access to privately owned land adjacent to the reserves. This could be done on long-term leases or by including farmers on those lands as shareholders. If successful, this expansion of habitat would allow more tourists to experience India’s nature while potentially building public support for and contributing to tiger conservation.

2.4.5.2 Further challenges facing National Parks

In many cases, national parks have taken the form of “islands” within human-dominated developed lands. As human societies further develop land around national parks, this isolation is projected to increase considerably. The wildlife populations within national parks do not recognize park or country borders so ecological wildlife corridors must be established and maintained to provide travel pathways on lands outside of parks. Many governments worldwide have already begun to address the issue of habitat fragmentation through the establishment of wildlife corridors. In south Texas, home to the country’s last remaining populations of ocelots (Leopardus pardalis), urban sprawl and development have taken their toll on the rare felids. As development fragments and degrades the animals’ habitats, ocelots are forced to cross busy roadways where they face serious dangers from passing vehicles.

Since 2005 conservationists have partnered with the Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife Refuge to construct a network of 14 road underpasses to facilitate safe crossings by ocelots and other animals. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service zone biologist Mitch Sternberg hopes the underpasses will increase the ocelots’ chances of survival. As Sternberg stated, “Our mission here is wildlife sustainability. We want to maintain public wildlife recreation opportunities and maintain the integrity of the area for future generations of Americans” (as cited in Morse, 2022, para. 22).

2.4.7 Types Of Leisure Activities And Programs

According to John Neulinger, a German-American psychologist who studied the field of leisure studies, there are 3 main attributes of leisure activities (Neulinger, 1976):

The experience is a state of mind;

It must be entered voluntarily; and

It must be intrinsically motivating of its own merit

In developed countries, leisure activities include literature, art and music.

In many low-income countries, where people commonly live according to day-to-day outlooks, leisure activities take an entirely different form. Indeed, many activities that are considered recreational in high-income countries are fundamental means of livelihood in low-income countries, e.g. fishing and construction of handicrafts.

In most communities the type of leisure activities are determined by variables such as age, gender, geography (e.g., rural vs. urban) and socioeconomic rank. In poor and rural communities there are usually no designated places for people to spend their leisure time, such as community centers and sports stadiums. Instead, people in these areas commonly gather in places of worship, neighborhood homes, and open spaces (Kaczynski & Henderson, 2017).

Participation in leisure activities has numerous benefits at both the individual and community-level. These benefits include:

Health promotion and disease prevention – leisure activities are an enjoyable and effective way to enhance overall health and well-being; they can lower stress, improve fitness, and prevent the development of chronic diseases;

Development of essential skills – physical and social skills can be developed through participation in leisure activities, especially at the community level;

International peace and development – leisure activities can be considered a universal language and used as an efficient tool to promote peace, tolerance and mutual understanding of people across political boundaries, cultures, and religions (Iwasaki, 2007).

Empowerment – leisure activities can empower people by positively influencing their self-confidence and self-esteem and sense of awareness (Green, 1998).

2.5 Challenges And Opportunities in Recreation, Park, And Leisure Services

2.5.1 Challenges And Opportunities In Recreation And Park Services

“Outdoor recreation and adventure tourism operators heavily rely on intact environments and healthy ecosystems,” (Westcott & Anderson, 2021, 5.3 section, para. 2), both of which are threatened by habitat destruction and climate change (Hewer & Gough, 2018).

Access to wilderness areas for tourism operators presents several challenges. Some zones in these areas are designated for recreation, such as provincial and national parks. However, for official permission to conduct commercial operations in these same places, gaining access often entails extensive permitting applications that usually impose restrictions on the types of activities and number of visitors allowed.

Furthermore, parks are generally limited to non-motorized activities, thereby presenting restrictions for tourism operators seeking to provide mechanized recreation. “In some instances, priority may be given to resource extraction or development rather than outdoor operators” (Westcott & Anderson, 2021, 5.3 section, para. 3).

Westcott and Anderson (2021) also point out:

Despite some of the challenges faced by recreation, outdoor recreation, and adventure tourism, the industry as a whole remains an exciting, dynamic, and growing sector of the… tourism economy. Employment opportunities abound, and the potential for economic contribution to the province, protection of wilderness areas, and diversification of rural economies away from resource extraction are exciting prospects. (5.4 section, para. 1)

The Mission of National Parks: A Management Paradox

The NPS Mission Statement states, in part, “The National Park Service preserves unimpaired the natural and cultural resources… for the enjoyment, education, and inspiration of this and future generations” (NPS, 2023b, para. 4). These two objectives, preservation and enjoyment, are in conflict, which creates numerous challenges in terms of determining park management strategies.

Finding the right balance between protection and availability for recreation (enjoyment) is further complicated by the NPS’ commitment to equal and affordable access for all visitors. After all, the parks belong to the American people, and they must be accessible to everyone.

The first national parks were free to visitors and were financed by private hotels that paid concessionaire fees. However, the development of the car travel industry results in considerable changes in consumer preferences. Throughout the early 20^th century, more visitors conducted day-trips by car to the parks as opposed to traveling by train or stagecoach, which was more commonplace in earlier decades. As a result, in 1908 Mount Rainier in Washington state became the first national park to charge fees for automobile admissions (Mackintosh, 1983). At present, approximately 26% of parks within the NPS system charge entrance fees per vehicle, motorcycle, or person; the fees generally range from $5 per person to $35 per vehicle (NPS, 2024a). In stark contrast to many countries around the world, the NPS system does not charge higher entrance fees for foreign tourists.

2.5.2 Challenges And Opportunities In Leisure Studies

Leisure time is the foundation of tourism and it is undergoing major change. Although the quantity of leisure time is not anticipated to increase significantly in the US, one important change is underway. This change involves the implementation of greater flexibility in working patterns. Hybrid and remote work have become the new normal (Gratton, 2021).

One of the technologies most responsible for facilitating remote work is video conferencing. Live video feeds enable real-time interaction, anywhere with an internet connection, thereby offering a cost-effective alternative to face-to-face meetings. This appealing option simply would not be possible without the widespread broadband internet advancements over the past 10-15 years.

This technology has advanced at a pace so fast that many companies have even shifted entirely away from traditional offices. Instead, they operate their businesses out of coworking spaces to accommodate their largely remote workforce. This change allows the development of more flexible working hours and, as a result, more leisure time.

While there are major advantages to this hybrid, remote system, negative impacts also emerge with the blurring of boundaries between work, leisure, office, and home time.

 

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