§1 Identifying the Obstacles

Thinking critically is an essential but often difficult and unpleasant cognitive process because it requires us to confront painful truths. To achieve the level of objectivity required for critical inquiry, we must learn to detect errors in our thinking and restrain the attitudes and feelings that distort our reasoning.

1.1 The Two Categories of Hindrances

Most common impediments to critical thinking are sorted into two primary categories:

• Category 1: Psychological Factors (How we think) – These are hindrances that arise because of our internal mental state, including our fears, motivations, desires, and cognitive dispositions.

• Category 2: Philosophical Ideas (What we think) – These are hindrances that occur because of our fundamental beliefs—or misconceptions—about truth, knowledge, and reality.

1.2 Self-Interested Thinking (Category 1)

One of the most pervasive psychological hindrances is self-interested thinking. This involves accepting a claim solely on the grounds that it advances, or coincides with, your own personal interests.

• The Problem: Self-interest alone cannot establish the truth of a claim. To base your beliefs on self-interest is to abandon the standards of critical thinking in favor of personal gain or comfort.

• Overcoming Self-Interest: 1. Watch out when things get personal: Strong emotions are often a sign that self-interest is clouding judgment. 2. Beware of “Saving Face”: Notice the urge to distort your thinking just to protect your ego or avoid admitting a mistake. 3. Avoid Selective Attention: Do not succumb to the availability error by only focusing on information that confirms your desires. 4. Look for Opposing Evidence: Actively seek out information that contradicts your preferred conclusion.

PRACTICE: Can you think of a recent time when you “saved face” rather than admitting an error? How did that affect your ability to see the situation objectively?

1.3 The Ethics of Belief: Evidentialism

A central pillar of this course is a view known as evidentialism, famously defended by the philosopher W. K. Clifford. Clifford argues that our beliefs are not just private matters; they have a moral dimension.

• The Clifford Standard: “It is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone, to believe anything upon insufficient evidence.”

• The Implication: If we allow ourselves to believe things without evidence simply because they make us feel good, we weaken our mental habits and potentially harm society by spreading unverified ideas.

1.4 Passion vs. Reason

When rational grounds for an opinion exist, there is rarely a need for emotional intensity. As Bertrand Russell observed, the “passion” with which a belief is held is often an inverse measure of the evidence supporting it.

“When there are rational grounds for an opinion, people are content to set them forth and wait for them to operate… The opinions that are held with passion are always those for which no good ground exists; indeed the passion is the measure of the holder’s lack of rational conviction.” — Bertrand Russell

CAUTION AHEAD: Monitoring the Breakdown

Be alert to the ways critical thinking can be undermined during a discussion:

• Watch for Heat: Notice when conversations get “heated” or veer off-topic; this is often a sign that logic has been replaced by psychological defensiveness.

• Check the Details: Ensure that no small but vital facts have been left out of the analysis.

• Reflect: Have you found yourself in a situation where critical thinking started to break down? What was the primary trigger—a psychological factor or a philosophical disagreement?