§2 Psychological Obstacles

We are all heirs to psychological tendencies and habits that channel our thinking. These obstacles persist until we develop the awareness and will to break free of them. Because humans are social animals, many of these hindrances are deeply rooted in our evolutionary past—what was once a survival mechanism can now become a barrier to objective truth.

2.1 Self-Interested Thinking and Face-Saving

Self-interested thinking involves accepting a claim solely because it advances or coincides with your personal interests.

• The Problem: Self-interest alone cannot establish the truth of a claim. Basing beliefs on personal gain is an abandonment of critical thinking.

  • Example: “I’m going to get a tax break, so I’m in favor of the current tax law proposal.”

• Face-Saving: A related obstacle where we defend a claim just to cover up cracks in our image or blame others for our mistakes.

  • Example: “I did poorly on the midterm because the questions were too difficult and the instructor didn’t make the material fun enough.”

How to Overcome it: Watch out when things get personal, consciously avoid selective attention, and prioritize evidence over ego.

2.2 Group-Centered Thinking

For most of human history, Community = Survival. We have a strong evolutionary drive to conform to our “tribe” for safety and approval. However, this becomes problematic when conformism obliterates critical thought.

• Peer Pressure: The urge to conform to the opinions of one’s immediate social circle.

  • Example: “Free Speech should not extend to certain groups. That’s just not how I was raised.”

• Appeal to Popularity / Common Practice: Pressure arising from the sheer number of people who believe a claim or engage in a behavior.

• Stereotyping: Classifying individuals into groups based on oversimplified or prejudiced attitudes.

• Prejudice and Bias: A judgment or opinion—whether positive or negative—based on insufficient reasons. Racism is a specific, harmful form of prejudice involving a lack of respect for the rights and value of people of different races or origins.

2.3 Cognitive Dispositions and Biases

Our brains often take “shortcuts” that lead us away from the truth. Recognizing these patterns is the first step toward correcting them.

• Confirmation Bias: The tendency to seek out and use only evidence that confirms our pre-existing views (often amplified by social media algorithms).

• Motivated Reasoning: Reasoning for the purpose of supporting a predetermined conclusion rather than uncovering the truth. This is “confirmation bias on overdrive.”

• Availability Error: Relying on evidence because it is “available”—memorable, striking, or emotionally charged—rather than because it is trustworthy. Failing to look beyond available data often leads to hasty generalizations.

• Dunning-Kruger Effect: The phenomenon of being ignorant of how ignorant we are. Those with the least knowledge in a subject often overestimate their expertise because they lack the very skills needed to recognize their own incompetence.

Additional Social Biases:

• Homophily: The tendency to give more credence to an argument simply because it comes from someone we know or someone who is like us.

• Mere Exposure & Illusion of Truth Effect: The tendency to become increasingly sympathetic to a view—or to believe it is true—simply because we have been repeatedly exposed to it.

• False Consensus Effect: The tendency to overestimate the degree to which other people agree with our own positions.

PRACTICE: Spot the Obstacle

Identify which hindrance is at work in these scenarios:

1. “I’m voting against the new school bond because my property taxes are already high enough.” (Answer: Self-interested thinking)

2. “Everyone in my family has always been a member of this political party; it’s just who we are.” (Answer: Group pressure)

3. “I didn’t trip because I’m clumsy; the floor was waxed too much.” (Answer: Face-saving)

How to Avoid Category 1 Hindrances

• Be Reasonably Skeptical: Especially of sources that confirm what you already believe.

• Seek Contrary Evidence: Make a conscientious effort to look for reasons why you might be wrong.

• Break the Filter Bubble: Actively seek out perspectives from outside your immediate social and family circles.