§3 Agent-Based Ethical Theories

While action-based theories focus on the “legalistic” side of ethics (rules and results), Agent-based theories look inward. They argue that morality isn’t just a list of chores to complete; it’s about the kind of person you are. If you are a person of good character, the “right” actions will follow naturally.

3.1 Virtue Ethics (The Aristotelian Tradition)

For Aristotle, the goal of life is Eudaimonia (often translated as “flourishing” or “living well”). To achieve this, a person must develop Virtues—character traits that allow them to function at their highest potential.

• The Golden Mean: Aristotle argued that every virtue is a “middle ground” between two extremes (vices).

  • Deficiency: Having too little of a trait (e.g., Cowardice).

  • Excess: Having too much of a trait (e.g., Recklessness).

  • The Virtue: The perfect balance in the middle (e.g., Courage).

• Practice makes Perfect: You don’t become virtuous by reading a book; you become virtuous through habituation. By repeatedly doing brave things, you eventually become a brave person.

3.2 Eastern Virtue Ethics: Confucianism & Daoism

Eastern traditions share the focus on character but emphasize harmony and social roles.

• Confucianism: Focuses on Ren (Humaneness/Compassion) and Li (Propriety/Ritual). Morality is found in fulfilling your specific duties within relationships (e.g., parent to child, citizen to leader).

• Daoism: Focuses on Wu Wei (Effortless Action). Morality is about aligning yourself with the Dao (the natural flow of the universe). A “good” person is like water—they don’t fight against the world, but they nourish everything they touch.

3.3 Care Ethics (Feminist Ethics)

In the 1980s, psychologists like Carol Gilligan noticed that traditional ethical theories (like Kant’s or Mill’s) were often “cold” and obsessed with abstract, impersonal rules. She and other feminist philosophers developed Care Ethics.

• The Core Idea: Morality is rooted in our relationships and the responsibilities we have to specific people.

• Context over Rules: Instead of asking “What is the universal rule for lying?”, a Care Ethicist asks: “How will my words affect my relationship with this person? How can I minimize pain and maintain trust?”

• Empathy as a Tool: While Kant relied on logic, Care Ethics relies on Empathy and Compassion. It views the “Reasonable Person” not as a detached judge, but as a connected member of a community.

§3 Summary Table: The Person Behind the Act