Appendix A
University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa Food Science and Human Nutrition Program and Human Nutrition Program
This table compares the typical levels of recommended daily nutrient intake to the United States Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) and the United Kingdom’s Safe Upper Levels (SULs). The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) and Adequate Intake (AI) values are considered to be levels of nutrient intake that meet or exceed the needs of practically all healthy people. The Daily Value amounts, that are currently used as reference values on food and supplement labels, are similar to the RDA/AI values, but differ in some cases. UL values are the amounts that are considered to be the maximum safe level of intake from food and supplements combined. SUL values are the maximum level of intake of a nutrient from dietary supplements that can be considered to be reasonably safe.
How much is too much?
Comparison of Dietary Reference Intake Values (for adult men and women) and Daily Values for Micronutrients with the Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL),a,c Safe Upper Levels (SUL),d and Guidance Levelsd
|
Nutrient
|
RDA/AIb (men / women) ages 31-50
|
Daily Value (Food Labels)
|
ULc
|
SUL or Guidance Leveld
|
Selected Potential Effects of Excess Intake
|
|
Vitamin A (mcg)
|
900 / 700
|
1500 (5000 IU)
|
3000
|
1500** (5000 IU)
|
Liver damage, bone & joint pain, dry skin, loss of hair, headache, vomiting |
|
beta-Carotene (mg)
|
–
|
–
|
–
|
7 (11,655 IU)
|
Increased risk of lung cancer in smokers and those heavily exposed to asbestos |
|
Vitamin D (mcg)
|
15 (600 IU)
|
10 (400 IU)
|
100
|
25 (1000 IU)
|
Calcification of brain, arteries, increased blood calcium, loss of appetite, nausea |
|
Vitamin E (mg)
|
15
|
20 (30 IU)
|
1000
|
540 (800 IU)
|
Deficient blood clotting |
|
Vitamin K (mcg)
|
120 / 90*
|
80
|
–
|
1000**
|
Red blood cell damage/anemia; liver damage |
|
Thiamin (B1) (mg)
|
1.2 / 1.1
|
1.5
|
–
|
100**
|
Headache, nausea, irritability, insomnia, rapid pulse, weakness (7000+ mg dose) |
|
Riboflavin (B2) (mg)
|
1.3 / 1.1
|
1.7
|
–
|
40**
|
Generally considered harmless; yellow discoloration of urine |
|
Niacin (mg)
|
16 / 14
|
20
|
35
|
500**
|
Liver damage, flushing, nausea, gastrointestinal problems |
|
Vitamin B6 (mg)
|
1.3
|
2
|
100
|
10
|
Neurological problems, numbness and pain in limbs |
|
Vitamin B12 (mcg)
|
2.4
|
6
|
– |
2000**
|
|
|
Folic acid (mcg)
|
400
|
400
|
1000
|
1000**
|
Masks B12 deficiency (which can cause neurological problems) |
|
Pantothenic acid (mg)
|
5*
|
10
|
–
|
200**
|
Diarrhea & gastrointestinal disturbance (10,000+ mg/day) |
|
Biotin (mcg)
|
30*
|
300
|
–
|
900**
|
No reports of toxicity from oral ingestion |
|
Choline (mcg)
|
550/425*
|
–
|
3500
|
–
|
Fishy body odor (trimethylaminuria), hepatotoxicity |
|
Vitamin C (mg)
|
90 / 75
|
60
|
2000
|
1000**
|
Nausea, diarrhea, kidney stones |
|
Boron (mg)
|
–
|
–
|
20
|
9.6
|
Adverse effects on male and female reproductive system |
|
Calcium (mg)
|
1000
|
1000
|
2500
|
1500**
|
Nausea, constipation, kidney stones |
|
Chloride (mg)
|
2300*
|
3400
|
3600
|
– | Increased blood pressure in salt-sensitive individuals (when consumed as sodium chloride) |
|
Chromium (mcg)
|
35/25*
|
120
|
–
|
10,000**
|
Potential adverse effects on liver and kidneys; picolinate form possibly mutagenic |
|
Cobalt (mg)
|
–
|
–
|
–
|
1.4**
|
Cardiotoxic effects; not appropriate in a dietary supplement except as vitamin B-12 |
|
Copper (mcg)
|
900
|
2000
|
10000
|
10000
|
Gastrointestinal distress, liver damage |
|
Fluoride (mg)
|
4 / 3*
|
–
|
10
|
–
|
Bone, kidney, muscle, and nerve damage; supplement with professional guidance |
|
Germanium
|
–
|
–
|
–
|
zero**
|
Kidney toxin; should not be in a dietary supplement |
|
Iodine (mcg)
|
150
|
150
|
1100
|
500**
|
Elevated thyroid hormone concentration |
|
Iron (mg)
|
8 / 18
|
18
|
45
|
17**
|
Gastrointestinal distress, increased risk of heart disease, oxidative stress |
|
Magnesium (mg)
|
420 / 320
|
400
|
350e
|
400**
|
Diarrhea |
|
Manganese (mg)
|
2.3 / 1.8*
|
2
|
11
|
4**
|
Neurotoxicity |
|
Molybdenum (mcg)
|
45
|
75
|
2000
|
zero**
|
Gout-like symptom; joint pains; increased uric acid |
|
Nickel (mcg)
|
–
|
–
|
1000
|
260**
|
Increased sensitivity of skin reaction to nickel in jewelry |
|
Phosphorus (mg)
|
700
|
1000
|
4000
|
250**
|
Alteration of parathyroid hormone levels; reduced bone mineral density |
|
Potassium (mg)
|
4700*
|
3500
|
–
|
3700**
|
Gastrointestinal damage |
|
Selenium (mcg)
|
55
|
70
|
400
|
450
|
Nausea, diarrhea, fatigue, hair and nail loss |
|
Silicon (mg)
|
–
|
–
|
–
|
700
|
Low toxicity; possibility of kidney stones |
|
Sodium (mg)
|
1500*
|
2400
|
2300
|
– | Increased blood pressure in salt-sensitive individuals (when consumed as sodium chloride) |
|
Vanadium (mg)
|
–
|
–
|
1.8
|
zero
|
Gastrointestinal irritation; fatigue |
|
Zinc (mg)
|
11 / 8
|
15
|
40
|
25
|
Impaired immune function, low HDL-cholesterol |
aFood and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine (U.S.). Dietary Reference Intakes Tables.
b(RDA) = Recommended Dietary Allowance, AI = Adequate Intake, indicated with *
cUL = Tolerable Upper Intake Level (from food & supplements combined)
dSUL = Safe Upper Levels; SULs and Guidance Levels (indicated by **) set by the Expert Group on Vitamins and Minerals of the Food Standards Agency, United Kingdom. These are intended to be levels of daily intake of nutrients in dietary supplements that potentially susceptible individuals could take daily on a life-long basis without medical supervision in reasonable safety. When the evidence base was considered inadequate to set a SUL, Guidance Levels were set based on limited data. SULs and Guidance Levels tend to be conservative and it is possible that, for some vitamins and minerals, greater amounts could be consumed for short periods without risk to health. The values presented are for a 60 kg (132 lb) adult. Consult the full publication for values expressed per kg body weight. This FSA publication, Safe Upper Levels for Vitamins and Minerals, is available at: http://www.foodstandards.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/vitmin2003.pdf
eThe UL for magnesium represents intake specifically from pharmacological agents and/or dietary supplements in addition to dietary intake.
A substance in food that can provide energy, contribute to body structure, and/or regulate body processes.
The levels of intake of essential nutrients that is based off of scientific knowledge, and it judged by the Food and Nutrition Board to be adequate to meet the known nutrient needs for all healthy people.
(Recommended Dietary Allowance) The levels of intake of essential nutrients that is based off of scientific knowledge, and it judged by the Food and Nutrition Board to be adequate to meet the known nutrient needs for all healthy people.
The level of nutrient intake that should be used as a goal when no RDA exists. This value is an approximation of the nutrient intake that sustains health.
(Adequate Intake) The level of nutrient intake that should be used as a goal when no RDA exists. This value is an approximation of the nutrient intake that sustains health.
(Tolerable Upper Intake Level) The maximum daily nutrient intake levels that are likely to pose health risks to almost all individuals in a given gender and life-stage group.
Essential nutrients that are needed by the body in small amounts. These include vitamins and minerals.
A fat-soluble vitamin that is needed for cell differentiation, reproduction, and vision.
A carotenoid that can be cleaved to release two retinol molecules.
A fat-soluble vitamin that can be made in the body when there is exposure to sunlight and is needed for the absorption of calcium.
A fat-soluble vitamin that functions as an antioxidant in the body.
A fat-soluble vitamin that is needed for blood clotting.
A B vitamin that is needed for energy metabolism.
A B vitamin that is needed for energy metabolism.
A B vitamin needed for protein metabolism.
One of the B vitamins that is only found in animal products.
A form of folate that is easily digestible and used in dietary supplements and fortified foods.
One of the B vitamins needed for energy metabolism.
A B vitamin that is needed for energy metabolism.
An essential nutrient, needed for the synthesis of the phospholipids, the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, lipid transport and also homocysteine metabolism.
A water soluble vitamin that is needed for the maintenance of collagen.
Organic compounds that are needed in small amounts in the diet to support and regulate the chemical reactions and processes needed for growth, reproduction, and the maintenance of health.
A pair of organs that aid in filtering waste and water out of the blood while also maintaining chemical balance in our bodies.
Hormones that are produced by the thyroid gland and regulate metabolic rate.
Damage resulting from an imbalance between oxidative oxygen molecules and antioxidant defenses.
A hormone that acts to increase blood calcium levels and is released from the parathyroid gland.
An essential nutrient the body needs in small amounts that aids in maintaining various body processes like fluid balance.
The maximum daily nutrient intake levels that are likely to pose health risks to almost all individuals in a given gender and life-stage group.
An element used in the body to promote chemical reactions and help form body structures.
A body’s relative mass.
