12.1 Sex, Gender, Identity and Expression
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
- Define and differentiate between sex and gender
- Define and discuss what is meant by gender identity
- Distinguish the meanings of different sexual orientations, gender identities, and gender expressions
When filling out a document such as a job application or school registration form, you are often asked to provide your name, address, phone number, birth date, race/ethnicity, and sex or gender. But have you ever been asked to provide your sex and your gender? Like most people, you may not have realized that sex and gender are not the same. However, sociologists and most other social scientists view them as conceptually distinct. Sex refers to physical or physiological differences between males and females, including both primary sex characteristics (the reproductive system) and secondary characteristics such as height and muscularity. Gender refers to behaviors, expectations, roles, personal traits, and social positions that society attributes to the sexes. In sociological research, both sex and gender are understood as social constructs. We give meaning to these constructs and organize our lives and social institutions around them. As such, both concepts and how we relate to them, change over time and are different across cultures.
Further, a person’s sex (male or female), as determined by their biology, does not always correspond with their gender (girl or boy; woman or man). Therefore, the terms sex and gender are not interchangeable. In the US, a baby who is born with male genitalia will most likely be identified as a boy (or male). As a child or adult, however, they may identify with the feminine aspects of culture. Further, while most of the female sex, regardless of culture, will eventually menstruate and develop breasts that can lactate, this is not the case for all women. And, because of the sexed binary and how we are socialized into gendered cultural norms based on our sexes, implications begin to arise.
In the US, mothers who struggle with fertility or breastfeeding tend to internalize this as a failure on their part, since motherhood is the pinnacle of feminity in US culture. These same cultural norms also contribute to the practice of questioning women as to why they are not mothers yet when they are still young adults, despite the age of first-time births having increased consistently since 1970, and regardless of a woman’s intentions of ever becoming a mother. Similarly, less muscular men are more likely to develop low self-esteem around their bodies, as the pinnacle of masculinity in US culture includes strength and muscularity. When men in US culture cannot fit into these gendered expectations, their sexualities are also often called into question. In young adults, throughout different decades, various uses of slang have existed to indicate just this: “no h*omo,” for example, or when young boys express human emotions like crying they are told to “be a man” or are called the f-slur despite crying being a universal human emotion.
The dichotomous or binary view of gender (the notion that someone is either a man or a woman) is specific to certain cultures and is not universal. In many cultures, gender is viewed as fluid. In the past, some anthropologists used the term “berdache” to refer to individuals who occasionally or permanently lived as a different gender in Native communities. This gendered role, more correctly referred to as “two-spirit,” is seen as normal among many Native American tribes still today, where observations of “berdache” were first made (Jacobs, Thomas, and Lang 1997). Similarly, Samoan culture accepts what Samoans refer to as “third gender.” Fa’afafine, which translates as “the way of the woman,” is a term used to describe individuals who are born biologically male but embody both masculine and feminine traits. Fa’afafines are considered an important part of Samoan culture and are accepted without question, as more than two genders are the dominant norms in Samoan culture. Much like anthropologists and “berdache,” observers from other cultures often mislabel fa’afafine’s sexuality as well as their gender because fa’afafines have varied sexual lives that may include men and women (Poasa 1992). Further, in US culture, it is considered feminine (or a girly or womanly practice) to wear a dress or skirt. However, in many Middle Eastern, Asian, Pacific Islander, and African cultures, sarongs, robes, or gowns are considered masculine. The kilt worn by a Scottish man in Scotland does not make him appear feminine in that culture, but in US culture, a man wearing a kilt will likely catch looks from others.
As you can see, gender and sex are not as simple as binary systems, nor are they interchangeable. Everyone is impacted by gendered systems and structures, from the norms and expectations placed on us, to how we are treated, viewed, and seen in society as well as how we see and relate to ourselves, our bodies, and each other. We will continue to unpack these concepts further below, but first, let’s unpack what sexuality is, as sexuality is, as described above with regards to men having their sexualities questioned when they are not “masculine enough,” bound to gendered systems and structures as well.
Sexuality and Sexual Orientation
A person’s sexuality is their capacity to experience sexual feelings and attraction. Studying sexual attitudes and practices is a particularly interesting field of sociology because sexual behavior and attitudes about sexual behavior have cultural and societal influences and impacts. Each society interprets sexuality and sexual activity in different ways, with different attitudes about premarital sex, the age of sexual consent, homosexuality, masturbation, and other sexual behaviors (Widmer 1998).
A person’s sexual orientation is their physical, mental, emotional, and sexual attraction to a particular sex (male and/or female). Sexual orientation is typically divided into several categories: heterosexuality, or the attraction to individuals of the opposite sex; homosexuality, the attraction to individuals of the same sex; bisexuality, the attraction to individuals of either sex; asexuality, a lack of sexual attraction or desire for sexual contact; pansexuality, an attraction to people regardless of sex, gender, gender identity, or gender expression; omnisexuality, an attraction to people of all sexes, genders, gender identities, and gender expressions that considers the person’s gender, and queer, an umbrella term used to describe sexual orientation, gender identity or gender expression that does not fit into societal norms and binary systems. Other categories may not refer to a sexual attraction, but rather a romantic one. For example, an aromantic person does not experience romantic attraction; this is different from asexuality, which refers to a lack of sexual attraction. Some sexual orientations do not refer to gender in their description, though those who identify as having that orientation may feel attraction to a certain gender. For example, demisexual refers to someone who feels a sexual attraction to someone only after they form an emotional bond; the term itself doesn’t distinguish among gender identities, but the person may feel attraction based on gender (PFLAG 2021). It is important to acknowledge and understand that many of these orientations exist on a spectrum, and there may be no specific term to describe how an individual feels romantically or sexually. Some terms have been developed to address this—such as graysexual or grayromantic—but their usage is a personal choice (Asexual Visibility and Education Network 2021).
People who are attracted to others of a different gender are typically referred to as “straight,” and people attracted to others of the same gender are typically referred to as “gay” for men and “lesbian” for women. As discussed, above, however, there are many more sexual and romantic orientations, so the term “gay,” for example, should not be used to describe everyone who is homosexual. Proper terminology includes the acronym LGBTQ, which stands for “Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer.” In other cases, people and organizations may add “I” to represent Intersex people (described below), and “A” for Asexual or Aromantic people, as well as one “P” to describe Pansexual people, and sometimes another “P” to describe Polysexual people. Finally, some people and organizations add a plus sign (+) to represent other possible identities or orientations. Sexuality and gender terminology are constantly changing, and may mean different things to different people; they are not universal, and each individual defines them for themselves (UC Davis LGBTQIA Resource Center 2020). Finally, a person who does not fully understand all of these terms can still be supportive of people who have those orientations. Advocacy and support organizations indicate it is much better to admit you don’t know something than to make assumptions or apply an incorrect label to someone (GLAAD 2021).
While the descriptions above are evidence of a vast degree of diversity, the United States and many other countries are heteronormative societies, meaning many people assume heterosexual orientation is biologically determined and is the default or normal type of orientation. While awareness and acceptance of different sexual orientations and identities seem to be increasing, the influence of a heteronormative society can lead LGBTQ people to be treated like “others,” even by people who do not deliberately seek to cause them harm. This can lead to significant distress (Boyer 2020). The causes of these heteronormative behaviors and expectations are tied to implicit biases and can be especially harmful to children and young adults (Tompkins 2017).
According to current scientific understandings, individuals are usually aware of their sexual orientation between middle childhood and early adolescence (American Psychological Association 2008). They do not have to participate in sexual activity to be aware of these emotional, romantic, and physical attractions. People can be celibate and still recognize their sexual orientation, and may have very different experiences of discovering and accepting their sexual orientation. Some studies have shown that a percentage of people may start to have feelings related to attraction or orientation at ages nine or ten, even if these feelings are not sexual (Calzo 2018). At the point of puberty, some may be able to announce their sexual orientation, while others may be unready or unwilling to make their sexual orientation or identity known since it goes against society’s historical and present norms depending on the person’s social and cultural context (APA 2008). And finally, some people recognize their true sexual orientation later in life—in their 30s, 40s, and beyond.
There is no scientific consensus regarding the exact reasons why an individual holds a specific sexual orientation. Research has been conducted to study the possible genetic, hormonal, developmental, social, and cultural influences on sexual orientation, but there has been no evidence that links sexual orientation to one factor (APA 2008). Alfred Kinsey was among the first to conceptualize sexuality as a continuum rather than a strict dichotomy of gay or straight. He created a six-point rating scale that ranges from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual. In his 1948 work Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, Kinsey writes, “Males do not represent two discrete populations, heterosexual and homosexual. The world is not to be divided into sheep and goats … The living world is a continuum in each and every one of its aspects” (Kinsey 1948). Many of Kinsey’s specific research findings have been criticized or discredited, but his influence on future research is widely accepted.
Later scholarship by Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick expanded on Kinsey’s notions. She coined the term “homosocial” to oppose “homosexual,” describing nonsexual same-sex relations. Sedgwick recognized that in US culture, males are subject to a clear divide between the two sides of this continuum, whereas females enjoy more fluidity. This can be illustrated by the way women in the US can express homosocial feelings (nonsexual regard for people of the same sex) through hugging, handholding, and physical closeness. In contrast, US males refrain from these expressions since they violate the heteronormative expectation that male sexual attraction should be exclusively for females. Research suggests that it is easier for women to violate these norms than men because men are subject to more social disapproval for being physically close to other men (Sedgwick 1985).
Because of the deeply personal nature of sexual orientation, as well as the societal biases against certain orientations, many people may question their sexual orientation before fully accepting it themselves. Similarly, parents may question their children’s sexual orientation based on certain behaviors. Simply viewing the many web pages and discussion forums dedicated to people expressing their questions makes it very clear that sexual orientation is not always clear. Feelings of guilt, responsibility, rejection, and simple uncertainty can make the process and growth very challenging. For example, a woman married to a man who recognizes that she is asexual, or a man married to a woman who recognizes that he is attracted to men, may both have extreme difficulty coming to terms with their sexuality, as well as disclosing it to others. At younger ages, similarly challenging barriers and difficulties exist. For example, adolescence can be a difficult and uncertain time overall, and feelings of different or changing orientation or nonconformity can only add to the challenges (Mills-Koonce 2018).
Gender Roles
As we grow, we learn how to behave from those around us. In this socialization process, children are introduced to certain roles that are typically linked to their biological sex. The term gender role refers to society’s concept of how men and women are expected to look and how they should behave. These roles are based on norms, or standards, created by society. As mentioned above, in US culture, masculine roles are usually associated with strength, aggression, and dominance, while feminine roles are usually associated with passivity, nurturance, and subordination. Role learning starts with socialization even before birth. Societies are quick to outfit male infants in blue and girls in pink, even applying these color-coded gender labels while a baby is in the womb. The popular cultural practice of gender-reveal parties is a case in point–a testament not to the gender of the baby, but to how the parents plan to gender their baby based on its presumed sex.
One way children learn gender roles is through play. Parents typically supply boys with trucks, toy guns, and superhero paraphernalia, which are active toys that promote motor skills, aggression, and solitary play. Daughters are often given dolls and dress-up apparel that foster nurturing, social proximity, and role play. Studies have shown that children will most likely choose to play with “gender appropriate” toys (or same-gender toys) even when cross-gender toys are available because parents give children positive feedback (in the form of praise, involvement, and physical closeness) for gender normative behavior (Caldera, Huston, and O’Brien 1998).
Figure 12.4: Childhood activities and instruction, like this father-daughter duck-hunting trip, can influence people’s lifelong views on gender roles. (Credit: Tim Miller, USFWS Midwest Region/flickr)
Beyond childhood, the drive to adhere to masculine and feminine gender roles continues later in life, in a tendency sometimes referred to as “occupational sorting” (Gerdeman 2019). Men tend to outnumber women in professions such as law enforcement, the military, and politics. Women tend to outnumber men in care-related occupations such as childcare, healthcare (even though the term “doctor” still conjures the image of a man), and social work. These occupational roles are examples of typical US gendered behavior, derived from our culture’s traditions. Adherence to these roles demonstrates fulfillment of social expectations but not necessarily personal preference (Diamond 2002). Sometimes people work in a profession because of their childhood socialization, societal pressures, and/or the opportunities afforded to them based on their gender.
Historically, women have had difficulty shedding the expectation that they cannot be a “good mother” and a “good worker” at the same time, which results in fewer opportunities and lower levels of pay (Ogden 2019). Generally, men do not share this difficulty, since the assumed role of men as fathers does not seem to conflict with their perceived work role. Men who are fathers (or who are expected to become fathers) do not face the same barriers to employment or promotion (González 2019). This is sometimes referred to as the “motherhood penalty” versus the “fatherhood premium,” and is prevalent in many higher-income countries (Bygren 2017). These concepts and their financial and societal implications will be revisited later in the chapter.
Gender Identity
US society allows for some level of flexibility when it comes to acting out gender roles. To a certain extent, men can assume some feminine roles and women can assume some masculine roles without interfering with their gender identity. Gender identity is a person’s deeply held internal perception of one’s gender.
Those who identify with the sex they were assigned at birth are often referred to as cisgender, utilizing the Latin prefix “cis,” which means “on the same side.” Because they are in the majority and do not have a potential component to transition, many cisgender people do not self-identify as such. As many societies are heteronormative, they are also cisnormative, which is the assumption or expectation that everyone is cisgender and that anything other than cisgender is “not normal.”
Those whose gender identity does not align with their sex assigned at birth are transgender (the prefix “trans” means “across”). A transgender woman is a person who was assigned male at birth but who identifies and/or lives as a woman; a transgender man was assigned female at birth but identifies and/or lives as a man. While determining the size of the transgender population is difficult, it is estimated that 1.4 million adults (Herman 2016) and 2 percent of high school students in the US identify as transgender (Johns 2019). The term “transgender” does not indicate sexual orientation or a particular gender expression, and we should avoid making assumptions about people’s sexual orientation based on knowledge about their gender identity (GLAAD 2021).
Figure 12.5: Actress Laverne Cox is the first openly transgender person to play a transgender character on a major show. She won a producing Emmy and was nominated four times for the Best Actress Emmy. She is also an advocate for LGBTQ issues outside of her career, such as in this “Ain’t I a Woman?” speaking tour. (Credit: modification of work by “KOMUnews_Flickr”/Flickr)
Some transgender individuals may undertake a process of transition, in which they move from living in a way that is more aligned with the sex assigned at birth to living in a way that is aligned with their gender identity. Transitioning may take the form of social, legal, or medical aspects of someone’s life, but not everyone undertakes any or all types of transition. Social transition may involve the person’s presentation, name, pronouns, and relationships. Legal transition can include changing their gender on government or other official documents, changing their legal name, and so on. Some people may undergo a physical or medical transition, in which they change their outward, physical, or sexual characteristics for their physical being to better align with their gender identity (UCSF Transgender Care 2019).
Not all transgender individuals choose to undergo gender-affirming procedures, despite dominant discourses about transgender people today. Many will maintain their original anatomy but may present themselves to society as another gender. This is typically done by adopting the dress, hairstyle, mannerisms, or other characteristic typically assigned to another gender. It is important to note that people who solely wear clothing that is traditionally assigned to a gender different from their biological sex, are not necessarily transgender. Wearing clothing of another gender is typically a form of self-expression or personal style, and it does not indicate a person’s gender identity or that they are transgender (TSER 2021).
While gender-affirming procedures and care are highly contested in the US political sphere in 2023, including the assumption that all transgender people go through medical or physical transitions, gender-affirming surgeries generally have been recognized as necessary and practiced in the US since as early as 1966 (Rosenthal, 2023). As Rosenthal (2023) further highlights, more normalized forms of gender-affirming care that cisgender people (men and women) undergo such as cosmetic surgeries like breast implants or reductions, calf implants, and even facial feminization procedures such as lip fillers or Botox, and Brazilian butt lifts should be recognized as what they are–gender-affirming procedures. Despite being longstanding practices for both trans and cisgender people, the strict gender and sex binaries in US culture have led to a hyper-fixation and politicization of trans people who receive gender-affirming care and not all who receive these types of medical treatments.
People become aware that they may be transgender at different ages. Even if someone does not have a full (or even partial) understanding of gender terminology and its implications, they can still develop an awareness that their gender assigned at birth does not align with their gender identity. Society, particularly in the United States, has been reluctant to accept transgender identities at any age, but we have particular difficulty accepting those identities in children. Many people feel that children are too young to understand their feelings and that they may “grow out of it.” It is true that some children who verbalize their identification or desire to live as another gender may ultimately decide to live in alignment with their assigned sex. But if a child consistently describes themselves as a specific gender (or as both genders) and/or expresses as that gender over a long period, their feelings cannot be attributed to going through a “phase” (Mayo Clinic 2021).
Some children, like many transgender people, may feel pressure to conform to social norms, which may lead them to suppress or hide their identity. Experts find evidence of gender dysphoria—the long-term distress associated with gender identification—in children as young as seven (Zaliznyak 2020). Again, most children have a limited understanding of the social and societal impacts of being transgender, but they can feel strongly that they are not aligned with their assigned sex. Considering that many transgender people do not come out or begin to transition until much later in life—well into their twenties—they may live for a long time under that distress.
Figure 12.6: The most widely known transgender pride flag was designed by transgender woman and US Navy veteran Monica Helms. Other designers have different interpretations of the transgender flag, and other groups within the LGBTQ community have their own flags and symbols. Interestingly, Gilbert Baker, the designer of the first widely adopted pride flag, made a point to avoid trademark or other limits on the flag, so that it could be reinterpreted and reused by others (Credit: crudmucosa/flickr).
Intersex
Since the term sex refers to biological or physical distinctions, the characteristics of sex will not vary significantly between different human societies. What also doesn’t often vary across cultures is that sex is often viewed solely as a binary system (male or female) despite the reality that in the US alone, estimates of around .7% percent of the population is born intersex. This is equivalent to about 5.6 million US residents. Intersex is a general term used to describe people whose sex traits, reproductive anatomy, hormones, or chromosomes are different from the usual two ways human bodies develop. Some intersex traits are recognized at birth, while others are not recognizable until puberty or later in life (interACT 2021). While some intersex people have physically recognizable features that are described by specific medical terms, intersex people and newborns are healthy.
Because of the strict sex and gender binaries, historically, intersexed babies, particularly those born with anatomical parts that challenged the sexed binary, were often prescribed sex changes upon birth, sometimes at the expense of the child when they grew up to feel outside of or not belonging in their bodies. An example of this medical malpractice is David Reimer. David was born a male but experienced a botched circumcision in infancy, which left him without a “normal” penis. The doctors decided and assured David’s parents that it was in David’s best interest that he undergo sex-reassignment surgery and be raised as a girl since being a boy with an abnormal penis was seen as more demoralizing (this was in 1967 when such surgeries were becoming accessible). Of course, as David grew up, he did not feel like he belonged in his body. Not knowing that he had undergone sex reassignment surgery without his consent well into his life, David still transitioned into a boy. Despite the transition and attempts to ultimately publicly highlight what happened to him at birth as an adult, David died by suicide at the age of 38.
Today, most in the medical and intersex community reject unnecessary surgeries intended to make a baby conform to a specific gender assignment because, along with sex and gender, intersex and transgender are also not interchangeable terms; many transgender people do not have intersex traits, and many intersex people do not consider themselves transgender. Some intersex people believe that intersex people should be included within the LGBTQ community, while others do not (Koyama n.d.). Medical ethicists indicate that any surgery to alter intersex characteristics or traits—if desired—should be delayed until an individual can decide for themselves (Behrens 2021). If a physical trait or medical condition prohibits a baby from urinating or performing another bodily function (which is very rare), then a medical procedure such as surgery will be needed; in other cases, hormonal issues related to intersex characteristics may require medical intervention.
Discrimination Against LGBTQ people
The FBI’s hate crime data indicates that crimes against LGBTQ people have been increasing over the last decade and that those crimes account for nearly one in five hate crimes committed in the United States (FBI 2020). While the disbanding of anti-LGBTQ laws in the United States has reduced government or law enforcement oppression or abuse, it has not eliminated it. In other countries, however, LGBTQ people can face even more danger. Reports from the United Nations, Human Rights Watch, and the International Lesbian, Gay, Trans, and Intersex Association (ILGA) indicate that many countries impose penalties for same-sex relationships, gender nonconformity, and other acts deemed opposed to the cultural or religious observances of the nation. As of 2020, six United Nations members imposed the death penalty for consensual same-sex acts, and another 61 countries penalized same-sex acts, through jail time, corporal punishment (such as lashing), or other measures. These countries include the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia (both of which can legally impose the death penalty for same-sex acts). Some nearby nations criminalize same-sex relations: Barbados can impose lifetime imprisonment for same-sex acts, and Jamaica, St. Kitts and Nevis, and Saint Lucia have lesser penalties, though Saint Lucia’s government indicates it does not enforce those laws (ILGA 2020). Even when the government criminal code does not formalize anti-LGBTQ penalties, local ordinances or government agents may have wide discretion. For example, many people fleeing Central American countries do so as a result of anti-LGBTQ violence, sometimes at the hands of police (Human Rights Watch 2020).
Such severe treatment at the hands of the government is no longer the case in the United States. But until the 1960s and 1970s, every state in the country criminalized same-sex acts, which allowed the military to dishonorably discharge gay veterans (stripping them of all benefits) and law enforcement agencies to investigate and detain people suspected of same-sex acts. Police regularly raided bars and clubs simply for allowing gay and lesbian people to dance together. Public decency laws allowed police to arrest people if they did not wear clothing aligned with the typical dress for their biological sex. Despite some states and political leaders debating bringing back laws to criminalize and punish same-sex relations, the criminalization of same-sex acts began to unravel at the state level in the 1960s and 1970s and was fully invalidated in a 2003 Supreme Court decision.
Hate crimes and anti-LGBTQ legislation are overt types of discrimination, but LGBTQ people are also treated differently from straight and cisgender people in schools, housing, and healthcare–across all social institutions in society. This can have effects on mental health, employment and financial opportunities, and relationships. For example, more than half of LGBTQ adults and 70 percent of those who are transgender or gender nonconforming report experiencing discrimination from a healthcare professional; this leads to delays or reluctance in seeking care or preventative visits, which has negative health outcomes (American Heart Association 2020). Similarly, elderly LGBTQ people are far less likely to come out to healthcare professionals than straight or cisgender people, which may also lead to healthcare issues at an age that is typically highly reliant on medical care (Foglia 2014).
Much of this discrimination is based on stereotypes and misinformation. Some are based on heterosexism, which Herek (1990) suggests is both an ideology and a set of institutional practices that privilege straight people and heterosexuality over other sexual orientations. Much like racism and sexism, heterosexism is a systematic disadvantage embedded in our social institutions, offering power to those who conform to heterosexual orientation while simultaneously disadvantaging those who do not. Homophobia, or an extreme or irrational aversion to gay, lesbian, bisexual, or all LGBTQ people, often manifests as prejudice and bias. Transphobia is a fear, hatred, or dislike of transgender people and/or prejudice and discrimination against them by individuals or institutions. Transphobia is also increasing in the US today. Trans people are four times more likely to experience violent crimes than cisgender people (Flores et al., 2018), and various bills are being passed in different states to impose the normalization of gender and sex binaries, rather than focusing on protecting a socially marginalized community.