Let’s first examine some of the benefits of learning groups. According to Barbara Gross Davis of UC Berkeley, “Students learn best when they are actively involved in the process. Researchers report that, regardless of the subject matter, students working in small groups tend to learn more of what is taught and retain it longer than when the same content is presented in other instructional formats. Students who work in collaborative groups also appear more satisfied with their classes.” (147)

According to Alice Macpherson of Kwantlen University College, “Cooperative learning is supported by one of the strongest research traditions in education, with many hundreds of studies conducted across a wide range of subject areas and age groups…. This large body of research suggests that student to student collaboration conducted in a manner consistent with cooperative learning principles produces superior results on a host of variables, including achievement, thinking skills, interethnic relations, liking for school, and self-esteem.” (11)

Macpherson offers a more detailed description of some of these benefits: 

1. 1. Academic Achievement: In experimental-control comparison studies of the achievement effects of cooperative learning, most found significantly greater achievement in cooperative than in control classes…. Critical thinking is stimulated and students clarify ideas through discussion and debate…. Using cooperative learning, students are continuously discussing, debating and clarifying their understanding of the concepts and materials being considered during the class. They are constructing their own knowledge base. The emphasis is on understanding the material as evidenced by the student’s ability to explain ideas to their peers. This leads to a sense of content mastery versus a passive acceptance of information from an outside expert, which further promotes a sense of helplessness and reliance upon others to attain concepts.
   2. Skilled Communication: Researchers found that learners involved in cooperative learning activities developed skills for interpersonal communications more readily than learners who were in other classroom settings did. They were more considerate of others’ feelings, worked in cross-cultural situations more easily, liked their classmates and liked their teachers more than other learners. Researchers found that they developed friends from other cultures and kept these friends outside of class. They had positive expectations toward future interactions. They had more accurate understanding of others’ perspectives. In conflict situations, they were more able to negotiate and solve conflicts in a win-win manner…. Social interaction skills are developed with cooperative learning strategies…. Students do not come by these skills naturally…. By asking group members to identify what behaviors help them work together and by asking individuals to reflect on their contribution to the group’s success or failure, students are made aware of the need for healthy, positive, helping interactions when they work in groups. Developing ways to manage conflict before conflict arises is an important part of this process.
   3. Psychological Health: Learners who were in classrooms with a significant amount of cooperative learning were psychologically healthier than learners who were not. They had higher self-esteem. Learners in cooperative learning classes have more positive feelings about themselves than do learners in traditional classes…. [Research also shows that] these learners had feelings of individual control over their own fate in school, their time on task was higher, and their cooperativeness and altruism were higher as well. (MacPherson 11-12)

   That’s a powerful list of benefits! We hope you see why team-based learning is so important at Cascadia. But not all group work produces these benefits. To deliver maximum results, group work must be done right.  This reading and the exercises you do in class will give you a clear picture of what to aim for in your groups and a chance to practice the skills needed to hit the target. Let’s take a look at some of the characteristics of successful learning groups.

   Reflection:

   Are these benefits appealing to you? On the surface, this is a no-brainer: who will say they aim to learn nothing, become worse at communicating, and develop a severe phobia of people after their group projects? But think carefully, have you ever thought about your team-learning tasks as a chance to really grow in all of these areas?  Do you mainly focus on the task at hand or do you also understand and value the benefits that result from the process itself.

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   III. What Makes Learning Groups Succeed?

   What makes the difference between learning groups that achieve the benefits listed above, and learning groups that don’t? Let’s begin by examining a very common approach to group projects. How would you rate the learning group described in the scenario, below left? How close do they get to the kind of group that will enjoy the benefits listed above?

   SCENARIO: Team X’s assignment is to deliver a 10-minute presentation on the history of collaborative learning. The team is given 20 minutes in class to organize their project. The team concludes they only need to meet twice to knock out the project. In their initial meeting, they first analyze the issue and outline the ideas they will present.  Next, they divide the project between the group members: each member is assigned 2 -4 slides to prepare for the presentation.  Someone volunteers to edit the final PowerPoint: i.e., to paste all the slides into the final presentation. Finally, to conclude the meeting, they have each person state their assignment.  They do this to ensure that each person clearly understands what they are supposed to do, and when and where to submit their work.  If all goes as planned, the editor will have the document compiled in time for a pre-class review of the presentation and each person will understand their slides well enough to present them without simply reading off the screen.

   How well did this group do? Let’s start with the positives. There are some very good things this group does. First, they begin by brainstorming and analyzing the broad topic and breaking it into smaller units of analysis. This would provide a chance for critical thinking, as members evaluate different views on the issue. Second, they get organized at the start: each person has a clearly defined task. Third, each person knows what they should do: there is some accountability.  If each person is responsible and pulls his or her weight, then the presentation may go flawlessly. If each person has done a good job with their research, they may even get a good grade.

   Unfortunately, the strategy focuses on maximizing the ratio of grade points per minute spent on task. The simple division-of-labor model does not motivate the group members to master the subject or develop their learning abilities. The reason is that no one needed to learn from anyone else. No one was challenged. No one was supported and encouraged. Outside of the first meeting, the “group” project devolved into a set of individual projects, stitched together without further reflection of the material. A truly collaborative project requires repeated evaluation of ideas, which hones critical thinking. It also involves mutual support, which promotes personal growth. To experience these benefits, groups must be wisely structured around certain core elements.

   What are the key elements of high-performing learning teams?

   Five traits are widely cited by experts in team-based learning. Keep in mind that the elements listed below are derived from decades of actual research. (For example, see Felder and Brent)

   1. Positive Interdependence:  Groups that exhibit this trait take responsibility for each other’s learning. While it is very important to take responsibility for one’s own learning, members of the best learning groups go beyond this: they take responsibility for each other’s learning. They take on a true “team” mentality. Members commit to assist, encourage, and support each other’s efforts to learn. There are many ways instructors promote positive interdependence. One method is simply to assign a group grade to the project. A more intensive strategy would require group members to teach material to each other before an exam. The team then gets the average of the individual grades. Obviously, in a scenario like this, team members have an incentive to care about and support each other’s learning. It is important to understand the rationale behind such project requirements. Why is positive interdependence important? How does it promote the superior outcomes associated with team-based learning? Understanding the connection is important because this element, more than the others, opens the door to many of the group-work outcomes that students (and teachers) dislike most: domineering group members who take control of a project, or slackers who don’t pull their weight, for instance. But it is precisely these risks that make this element so beneficial. First, group members must learn to trust each other. The experience of trusting and being trusted can be transforming and pay life-long dividends. Second, group members must learn to motivate each other. This requires, in part, an understanding and appreciation of the different circumstances that motivate one’s teammates. Third, group members must learn to teach each other. As your instructors will attest, one of the best ways to master a subject is to teach it.
   2. Individual Accountability: In groups that exhibit this trait, each group member knows what is expected of them. In addition, there are explicitly stated consequences for not fulfilling one’s promise to the group.  There should be honest and supportive discussion about the assignment of responsibilities and consequences. The minimum expectations should be reasonable (not everyone has the time, training, or inclination to create an A+ project) and derived using a fair process. If not required by the instructor, groups may choose to share their accountability decisions with their instructor. It is reasonable to ask your instructors to help facilitate accountability in your group. Finally, don’t forget to praise a job well-done. Often, a group will draft a document during their initial meetings that outlines expectations and sets out criteria for evaluating individual and group performance. Your instructor may require you to submit a group charter.
   3. Repeated Interaction: Groups that get team-learning right, will meet several times throughout the course of a project. (The number of times depends partly on the scope of the project; some of your assignments may only allow for a single meeting.) Multiple meetings allow members to provide one another with feedback, evaluate and refine reasoning and new ideas. It also allows group members to develop their interpersonal and small group skills: often, it is not until a third or fourth meeting that group members begin to really understand how to work together successfully. A glaring weakness of the simple division-of-labor approach in our initial example was the lack of interaction. The rationale behind this element is no secret: mastery and skill acquisition require practice.
   4. Development of Interpersonal and Team-Building Skills: In successful learning teams, students understand the importance of different types of roles, or functions, that members play. Teams recognize the fact that each person becomes a leader when they take responsibility for a role. Team members’ willingness to step into a role, while at the same time relying on associates to play their part, is part of the trust-building process. Participants learn to manage conflict and communicate clearly.
   5. Self-Assessment: Successful learning groups take time to assess their work and their work strategies many times throughout the course of a project. Some assessments will be short and informal – perhaps a question or two at the end of a meeting. (Groups can have each member articulate their understanding of a concept or an assignment.) Other assessments will be longer and more formal. Often, an instructor will require a formal write-up that gives students an opportunity to reflect on the group project in the context of their broader goals. Such evaluations are crucial for helping students to learn how to learn (both individually and in groups). In short, pausing for reflection and evaluation allows teams to identify what they have done right and what they want to change.
   Reflection:

   What questions would you ask in a group assessment?  What measures would you use to assess each of the first four elements of high-performance learning teams?

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   IV. Five Common Stages of Group Development

   So far, we have surveyed the benefits of group learning, discussed the limitations of the simple division-of-labor model of group work, and highlighted the essential ingredients of a high-performance team. Now we consider what you can expect to experience as you go about the process of team learning.

   Often, after a couple of meetings, group members will discover that they had misunderstood an important aspect of a project, or perhaps they revise their thinking on an important concept or group strategy. At this point, a student may be tempted to blame others, may feel ashamed, or may even want to quit the group. But, as we’ll see, these sorts of misunderstandings are actually a common part of the process of group formation. This section of the reading will help you to anticipate how groups will change throughout the course of a longer project and it will help you to interpret your own experiences in a productive manner. Alice Macpherson describes the stages of group development as follows:

   For a team to work effectively it is important to recognize that there are steps that will happen and that the team task and interpersonal behaviors will change over time. A team or group develops a culture of traits and patterns as they progress. Dr. Bruce Tuckman developed a model of how teams progress and exhibit behaviors around both the task being done and the interpersonal interactions.

   Stage 1 – Forming: This is the time of organization and orientation to tasks. The task(s) and information about them will be identified. The question to be answered is “What is the task of this group and how will I be able to contribute to that task?” In the behavior area, the members will develop group guidelines, either by consensus or by informal testing of behaviors. Some members will look to others to either lead or follow. The question to be answered is “What kind of behavior is acceptable in this group and how am I to behave?”

   Stage 2 – Storming: Here there are individual emotional responses to the group. The demands of the task will trigger part of this response and the more difficult the task appears in relation to individual’s self-perceived abilities, the greater the potential for a “storm”. The question to be answered is “Am I emotionally ready to deal with this task?” Varied understandings of task and roles are expressed or become apparent. Differences between members may be expressed in a hostile manner and members may wonder if they want to be part of the group. They think, “Do I really want to work with these people?”

   Stage 3 – Norming: Now communication is opening up and developing. Information is being exchanged and ideas and opinions are shared. The focus is on the task and members are answering the question, “What do I have that will help us accomplish this task?” Workable guidelines are established. On the behavioral side, the individuals are becoming a group. There is a sense of harmony and people are looking at “How can I help contribute to group unity?”

   Stage 4 – Performing: Everyone is focused on constructive action directed towards the successful completion of the task. The interpersonal and task behaviors with shared understandings start to merge and functionality is the main idea. Problem-solving will be primarily directed to the work and the product.

   Stage 5 – Adjourning: When teams have completed their tasks, they wrap up, and then go on to other teams in other places. It is important for the team to take the time to look at its process one last time. “What went well?” “What could we do better in another situation?” so that the loose ends are wrapped up on the task. The conclusion of the interpersonal behaviors includes a chance to say thank you and goodbye to the team members. This can range from an imaginary gift to each person all the way to various celebrations and even plans to meet again at a later date. Closure is a final essential part of the team process. (Macpherson 5-6)

   Reflection:

   You can detect these stages in all sorts of groups: game alliances, learning teams, volunteer organizations, for example. Check out a group-development analysis of the movie Remember the Titans (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hEJaz3sinEs)

    

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   V. How to set up your groups:

   This section will describe two sets of questions you can ask to help create a high-functioning learning team. Experts who study group process stress the importance of two kinds of traits. High-functioning groups (whether learning groups in school, design teams at work, or sports teams, for example) focus on the task at hand, and they also focus on the group itself. It is important to have the skills needed to perform a task, but also the skills needed to create a positive group culture. As you set up your group project, you will want to answer most of the questions listed below. (These principles are geared towards longer group-learning projects, but they can be modified to apply to shorter in-class projects.)

   A. Task Questions:

   These questions pertain to the content of the assignment. The content of an assignment, obviously, will vary with the subject and with the project.  The following are general, all-purpose questions that can help with a wide variety of projects and class topics.

   1. Instructions Review: Is everyone clear on what, exactly, the project requires? Have at least two members explain their understanding of the project. You may also want to ask your instructor whether you understand the project correctly.
   2. Task Analysis: What specific steps must be taken to finish the project? What questions should be answered in order to address the main topic? What kinds of information are relevant for answering these questions? What sources will you use to answer the questions?
   3. Evaluation Criteria: How will you evaluate the quality of your work?  Consult your instructor’s evaluation criteria, but also step back and think about the criteria you would use.  Do they match your instructor’s criteria? (This may be revised throughout the project, as your understanding of the subject improves.)
   4. Individual Assignments: How can the workload be divided to encourage positive interdependence and continual feedback and revision? Is it possible to assign sub-tasks to pairs of group members? Working in pairs promotes deeper collaboration. Have you built-in opportunities for each group member to share their expertise with the group?
   5. Meeting Schedule: How will you share and discuss each other’s findings?  This step is crucial. The key to high-performing groups is feedback and discussion of each other’s work.

   B. Group Culture Questions: 

   The goal here is to build a productive group culture. You want to create a sense of mutual trust and support. You also want to design routines that will result in higher levels of competence. How would you build your team? What core competencies will you promote? Here are some things that the learning-team experts recommend.

   1. Introductions: Share your names and contact information. Gauge each person’s interest and prior knowledge of the subject. It’s important to realize that group members do not all start at the same place.
   2. Build trust and establish goals: It’s likely that group members will have different time constraints and different academic goals.  Don’t assume that everyone has the time, inclination, or prior training needed to turn in an A+ project.
   3. Identify key leadership functions that you want to see expressed in your group (see VI. Leadership Roles, below).
   4. Draft a group Charter and Mission Statement: This exercise creates an opportunity for clear communication about expectations. It helps to establish expectations and accountability.
   5. Draft a Peer Review Document: This explains how each person’s work will be evaluated. Agree to fair standards. This is the document you will use to evaluate both individuals and the group itself.

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   VI. Leadership Roles

   Groups need leadership. But does this mean they need a leader – a single leader? Often, the person designated as “the leader”, is the organizer. This is the person who initiates discussion and coordinates everyone’s efforts. No doubt, this is a crucial role. Although this person is often looked on as “the leader” of the group, many other things need to happen to develop a powerful learning team. Each of the roles described below is part of the leadership process. Which roles a person plays depends on his/her abilities, personality and preferences. Some may fill more than one role, at the same time or over a period of time. There may be one person who fills several of these roles and is considered to be the group “leader,” but without the leadership contributions made by others in the group, the group would function less effectively, if at all. Roles are also often shared, for example, many people may serve as initiators or encouragers.

   According to Context Institute, there are many roles we each may play in groups (24). Take a look at these roles and identify where you see yourself when it comes to working in teams. Notice that the roles are divided into two categories. This highlights the importance of a twin focus on both task and process.

   Task roles

   • The COORDINATOR shows or clarifies the relationships among various ideas and suggestions, tries to pull ideas and suggestions together, or tries to coordinate the activities of various members of sub-groups.
   • The ELABORATOR spells out suggestions in terms of examples or developed meanings, offers a rationale for suggestions previously made, and tries to deduce how an idea or suggestion would work out if adopted primarily upon relevant facts or information.
   • The ENERGIZER prods the group to action or decision, attempts to stimulate or arouse the group to “greater” or “higher quality” activity
   • The INFORMATION GIVER offers facts or generalizations which are “authoritative” or relates his/her own experience pertinent to the group problem.
   • The INFORMATION SEEKER asks for clarification of suggestions made in terms of their factual adequacy, for authoritative information and facts pertinent to the problem being discussed.
   • The INITIATOR suggests or proposes to the group new ideas. S/he offers a novel point of view concerning problems, procedures, goals, or solutions.
   • The OPINION GIVER states his/her belief pertinent to a suggestion made. The emphasis is on what s/he believes should be the group’s view of pertinent values, not primarily upon relevant facts or information
   • The OPINION SEEKER asks primarily for clarification of values pertinent to what the group is undertaking or values involved in various suggestions that have been made.
   • The PROCEDURAL TECHNICIAN expedites group movement by doing things for the group, e.g. passing out materials or setting up chairs.
   • The RECORDER writes down suggestions, makes a record of group decisions, or writes down the product of discussion. The recorder fills the role of “group memory.” (Context Institute 24)

   Maintenance roles

   • The COMPROMISER operates from within a conflict in which his/her idea or position is involved. S/he may offer compromise by yielding status, admitting his/her error, disciplining him/herself to maintain group harmony, or by “coming halfway” in moving along with the group.
   • The ENCOURAGER praises, agrees with, and accepts the contribution of the others. S/he indicates warmth and solidarity in her/his attitude toward other group members, offers commendation and praise and in various ways indicates understanding and acceptance of other points of view, ideas, and suggestions.
   • The GATE-KEEPER expedites attempts to keep communication channels open by encouraging or facilitating the participation of others (“we haven’t gotten the ideas of Mr. X yet,” etc.) or by proposing regulation of the flow of communication (“why don’t we limit the length of our contributions so that everyone will have a chance to contribute?” etc.)
   • The GROUP OBSERVER keeps records of various aspects of group process and feeds such data with proposed interpretations into the group’s evaluation of its own procedures.
   • The HARMONIZER mediates the differences between other members, attempts to reconcile disagreements, relieves tension in conflict situations through good-hearted jokes, a soothing attitude, etc
   • The REALITY TESTER subjects the accomplishment of the group to some standard or set of standards of group functioning in the context of the group task. Thus, s/he may evaluate or question the “practicality,” the “logic,” the “facts,” or the “procedure” of the suggestion or of some unit of group discussion.
   • The STANDARD SETTER expresses standards for the group. These standards apply to the quality of the group process, or set limits on acceptable individual behavior within the group.
   • The SUMMARIZER defines the position of the group with respect to its goals by summarizing what has occurred, points to departures from agreed upon directions or goals, or raises questions about the direction which the group discussion is taking. (Context Institute 24)

   Reflection:

   How important are group maintenance roles? Check out the following TED talk: Build a tower, build a team (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H0_yKBitO8M)

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   VII. Final Thoughts

   Cascadia is committed to the concept of team-based learning. We express our commitment in the way we structure our classes and in our use of smaller group projects. Each of your instructors will have their own way of applying the basic principles discussed in this reading. But we agree on the basic concept because research shows that it works. We hope, after reading this material and practicing some of the elements of successful learning teams, that you, too, will develop a deeper commitment to cooperative learning. A learning team is a tool that you can use anytime you want to learn something and will pay dividends outside your college life.

   Reflection:

   Consider Colorado State article’s great discussion of frequent fears about group work (https://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=42)

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   Works Cited

   Context Institute. “Roles in Groups: The Many Forms of Leadership and Participation.” In Context: A Quarterly of Humane and Sustainable Culture, No. 9 Strategies for Cultural Change, 1985, 1997, p. 24, http://www.context.org/iclib/ic09/fcl/.

   Felder, Richard M. and Brent, Rebecca. “Cooperative Learning.” Active learning: Models from the analytical sciences, edited by P.A. Mabrouk, American Chemical Society, 2007, 34-53, http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/Papers/CLChapter.pdf.

   Gross Davis, Barbara. Tools for Teaching. Jossey-Bass, 1993.

   Macpherson, Alice. Cooperative Learning Group Activities for College Courses. Kwantlen Polytechnic University, 1999, KORA Kwantlen Open Resource Access, 2015, http://kora.kpu.ca/islandora/object/kora:43.