Reading and writing play a fundamental role in what professional scientists do and are also essential tools for learning scientific concepts.  Reading and writing for the sciences can be challenging because scientific texts are not written like literary texts, which tell a story. Instead, they are written in formats that are meant to transmit information effectively and concisely and, therefore, use clear and precise terms .  This is helpful if you are familiar with the language and processes of science but can be intimidating if you are not, especially because many words have multiple definitions, so unless you know the science-specific definition of a word, it is easy to get confused.  Science texts also use complex sentences to show the relationships and connections between ideas. Because of this, the large amount of academic content vocabulary, and the use of involved visuals, like graphs and charts,  scientific texts can be quite dense. Learning the basic elements of scientific writing, learning scientific vocablulary, annotating, and reading relatively slowly will greatly support your comprehension.

Common Scientific Text Types

Text Organization for Scientific Articles

There is an explicit format that scientific papers follow, with relatively small variations in style among journals. Papers are broken down into the following sections: title, abstract, introduction, methods, results, and discussion. Every section, except the title, should be labeled as such. Generally the section name is centered and underlined (or bold-faced) over the text. Please note that scientific posters follow a similar format as scientific papers.

• Title: The title should give the reader a concise, informative description of the content and scope of the paper.
• Abstract: The abstract is a concise summary of the major findings of the study. It ia usually a short paragraph no longer than 9-10 sentences. It states the purposes of the study, and then briefly summarize the methods, results, and conclusions. The abstract should be able to stand-alone.
• Introduction: In many journals, the introduction is also unlabeled, and simply starts after the abstract. The introduction gives the rationale for the research. It answers the question “Why should anyone be interested in this work?” It usually includes background information, including the work of others, and a description of the author’s objectives.  Introductions begin with a general description of the topic, and then become more specific. References should be cited where appropriate.
• Methods:  This section is also often called Materials and Methods. 
This section summarizes the subjects, equipment, and procedures used. It is NOT a list, but a narrative description. This section should contain enough information so that someone else could replicate the experiment or work described.
• Results: The results include presentations of data and the results of statistical analysis of the data. Usually figures and/or tables are used to present data and are refered to by a number (Table 1, Table 2, etc.) Graphs and diagrams are both called figures and are numbered consecutively (Fig. 1, Fig. 2, etc.)
• Discussion: This section shares the “take home” message of the study. Usually, it begins by briefly summarizing the major findings of the study. Then, discusses each finding one at a time (usually in separate paragraphs). The discussion section parallels the introduction to bring the paper full circle. References are used throughout the discussion to support the author’s points and to compare findings with those of similar studies. Scientists might also discuss unexpected results or possible errors in the experiment, and include ideas for further reasearch.  Remember an important piece of the scientific method is sharing information and supporting other scientific research.
• Literature Cited or References: Each academic discipline uses a different format to cite the references they use. These differences can be dramatic (English vs. Science, for example) or small (Psychology vs. Biology), but they are based on what information is seen as important. A credible scientific text will include appropriate citations, usually formatted in APA Style.

Fig. 1.11 From: Introductory Biology: Ecology, Evolution, and Biodiversity Authors: Erica Kosal

References

“Cite Your Sources” by University of California, Santa Cruz, University Library is licensed under CC BY 3.0

“Distinguish between Popular and Scholarly Journals” by University of California, Santa Cruz, University Library is licensed under CC BY 3.0

“Distinguish Between Primary and Secondary Sources” by University of California, Santa Cruz, University Library is licensed under CC BY 3.0

Introductory Biology: Ecology, Evolution, and Biodiversity Copyright © 2023 by amuir13 and Erica Kosal is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

Mt Hood Community College Biology 101 Copyright © 2016 by Lisa Bartee and Christine Anderson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

OpenStax, Biology. OpenStax CNX. May 27, 2016 http://cnx.org/contents/s8Hh0oOc@9.10:RD6ERYiU@5/The-Process-of-Science.

Universiy of Illinois Chicago’s Library guide

Information in the Text Organization section are adapted by Walter Shriner. Originally from Jakob, E. 1995. Laboratory manual for animal behavior. Bowling Green University and Muller, K. 1991. Ornithology laboratory. University of California, Davis.

“What is plagiarism?” by University of California, Santa Cruz, University Library is licensed under CC BY 3.0