2 What Is Anthropological Research?
What do anthropologists research?
The short answer is pretty much anything related to being human. We can be more specific by looking at each of the four major fields of anthropology:
Cultural anthropology: this is the cornerstone of anthropology. Cultural, or sociocultural, anthropologists study living peoples. They ask questions about how people behave and why they behave that way.
Biological or physical anthropologists also study living peoples but ask different types of questions that are related to the interaction of biology and culture. Disease, death, evolution, primates are all topic within biological anthropology.
Linguistic anthropologists study how people communicate, both verbally and non-verbally. They look at the structure and evolution of language. They also examine what cultural values are reflected in language.
Archaeologists ask the same types of questions that cultural anthropologists ask, but their dataset is different; they look at the material remains of people in the past.
How do anthropologists decide what to research?
This is a good question, and it has a surprisingly simple answer–they research what they find interesting. It is important that you do the same thing when you are assigned a research project for your classes. Even if your professor assigns a topic, you should be able to come up with an angle to that topic that you find interesting. When choosing a topic, start broadly then through the process of research, begin to narrow the focus. The best way to start is to do some general research to learn about the topic. Wikipedia can be a good source for this first step. The articles on Wikipedia can provide you with keywords to help you focus your research. Once you’ve identified keywords, then you can find academic sources to complete your assignment. Royal Road University has more advice on how to develop a research question. Grand Canyon University also has some advice on this.
Science and Anthropology
There has been a long running debate about the scientific nature of anthropology. Science is a way to gain knowledge about natural phenomena using empirical observation and testing, i.e., experiments (Jurmain, et al 2013). While there are different protocols used in science, it is performed using a set of rules called The Scientific Method (Fancher 2000). The method stresses the need to develop a testable hypothesis, the use of objectivity and rationality, and the circularity of scientific research. This does not mean that science is infallible, but in using the scientific method, particularly with the necessity to have testable hypotheses and tests that are replicable by other researchers, rigorous conclusions are reached.
Within the academy, anthropology is designated as a social science. Social sciences are identified as humanistic, ergo, thought of as “soft sciences” because they focus on
…intangibles and relate to the study of human and animal behaviors, interactions, thoughts, and feelings. Soft sciences apply the scientific method to such intangibles, but because of the nature of living beings, it is almost impossible to recreate a soft science experiment with exactitude…the distinction between the two types of science is a matter of how rigorously a hypothesis can be stated, tested, and then accepted or rejected (Helmenstine 2019).
Helmenstine (2019) further states that the designation is outdated as the “degree of difficulty is less related to the discipline than it is to the specific question at hand.” Difficulty may be not in the performance of experiments but in devising an experiment, which may be harder in the so-called soft sciences.
Peregrine, et al. (2014) claim that the differentiation between science (hard sciences) and the humanities (soft sciences) is a false dichotomy. Within anthropology, both hard science and soft science provide important frameworks for understanding the human experience. Hard science helps us make sense of observable phenomena and soft science provides cultural context for those phenomena. As a holistic discipline it is important for anthropologists to use various methodologies and engage with differing perspectives to understand the human experience.
Anthropology cannot succeed without tolerance for this diversity of approaches…our task…is not to seek definitions of scientific or humanistic approaches but, rather, to implement whatever approach satisfies our interests and helps us to answer our questions (Peregrine et.al. 2012, 597).
Misconceptions About Science
There are some common misconceptions about science that may impede one’s ability to fully understand scientific concepts:
- Science proves things. Proofs are final and binary, which occurs in mathematics and logic. Science uses evidence gathered over time to develop theories, which are explanations widely accepted based on the current available data. Good scientists accept that theories may change based on new data (Kanazawa 2008).
- The scientific method is the only way to do science and it must be done in a lab. While the scientific method is an important tool, it is not the only tool in the researcher’s toolbox. Part of the scientific method as is generally taught in science classrooms is experimentation. It is important to remember that experimentation is only one way to collect data. There are many other ways to collect data, which does not negate utilizing other steps of the scientific method.
- Science is boring. Maybe it is sometimes, but science can be fun and creative. Science employs the imagination and since it explores all observable phenomena, there is usually something that garners one’s interest. Sometimes it is simply a matter of finding that something.
- Science is hard. Perhaps. The language of science, including mathematics, can be intimidating; however, learning about how to do science is the same as learning how to do anything—it’s a process that we learn over time. Patience is key here—sometimes we need to look at multiple sources to gain an understanding.
- Hypotheses and theories are the same thing. Not so. Hypotheses are tentative explanations for a phenomenon. Theories are an accepted explanation based on the testing of hypotheses and well-supported by facts. It can take a long time for a hypothesis to be elevated to the level of scientific theory.
- Scientific knowledge is immutable. Again, not so. Scientific knowledge can and does change as new data are collected and analyzed. If scientific knowledge was immutable or unchanging, then there would never be medical or technological advancements. New or changing knowledge is not bad; the success of humans is reliant on our ability to question and be open to new things. We would not be living in the structures we do today or eat the wide range of foods that we do if not for our ancestors’ openness to new knowledge and change.
- There is always a right answer. Since scientific knowledge can change, answers may change, or we may not be able to determine the ‘right’ answer. This can be especially hard for some people to understand. This may be because the data suggest multiple answers or we simply do not have the ability to collect the data needed to approach a definitive answer. The trajectory of human evolution is a good example of this. Based on current data and data collection methods, paleoanthropologists have developed several hypotheses about how humans evolved. Because we cannot say which hypothesis is right some people claim that human evolution is false. This is a misunderstanding as to the nature of science. The ‘gray’ area, the area of uncertainty, is not inherently bad. It drives further research, and we need to be open to the fact that sometimes ‘this is what we know right now’ is okay.
- Science is anti-religion. While it is true that many scientists are atheists, it is also true that many scientists follow religious belief systems. Scientists prefer to leave religion outside of the science classroom because the subject matter is out of the purview of what they can research because “supernatural explanations are less likely to generate testable claims” (Brickmore et.al. 2009).
Science and Culture
Science does not operate within a vacuum. It operates within cultural systems, which, unsurprisingly, influences the way science is done. Science, as is taught in most schools in industrial nations, started in Renaissance Europe, which itself was heavily influence by knowledge gained from Islamic societies. However, this empirical approach is not the only way to study nature or observable phenomena.
Cultures from all regions of the world have developed a complex view of nature, rooted in their philosophy, which has led to their understanding and explanation of the natural world. The traditional knowledge of non-European cultures is the expression of specific ways of living in the world, of a specific relationship between society and culture, and of a specific approach to the acquisition and construction of knowledge (Iaccarino 2003, 223).
It is beyond the scope of this class to explore all the various ways cultures understand the interaction of culture and environment or to investigate the myriad of ways knowledge is constructed. Because anthropology is embedded within the Western practice of science, that approach is the focus of this chapter.
Society’s Influence on Science
As cultures and societies change to meet new needs, so does science. For instance, national interests influence the trajectory of science. World War II influenced research into atoms, leading to the development of nuclear weapons and nuclear medicine. More recently, the COVID-19 pandemic led researchers to investigate not only a vaccine for the virus, but its origins and epidemiology.
Funding to practice science, e.g., laboratory equipment, salaries, etc., most often comes from social organizations. Both government and private organizations support scientific research. In the United States, the National Science Foundation, National Institute of Health, and the Centers for Disease Control are a few governmental organizations that provide grants for scientific research. The Wenner-Gren Foundation, Tinker Foundation, and Alfred P. Sloan Foundation are examples of private organizations that provide science research grants. Sometimes the organizations direct the focus of research by providing grants for specific types or areas of research, such as The Whitehall Foundation, which provides grants for research in the life sciences, or The Leakey Foundation, which awards grants for research about human origins. While funding agencies can influence what scientists research, it cannot determine the conclusions of the research.
Scientists are people raised within cultures that “…shape our expectations, values, beliefs, and goals” (“Shaping Scientists” 2022). For example, a scientist with a family member who died from cancer may focus on cancer research. On the flip side, beliefs or ethical concerns may turn scientists away from certain avenues of research, as in the case of Joseph Rotblat, a Polish-born scientist who stepped away from the Manhattan Project because he was concerned about the cost to human life (“Shaping Scientists” 2022).
Clearly, these influences could cause bias within scientific research; however, science has a self-checking system that helps to mitigate bias. This system is called the scientific method.
The Scientific Method
Why do students of anthropology need to understand the scientific method? Because it is a key methodology in biological anthropology. It is one of the tools used to help researchers find answers to questions about the human experience.
Steps of the Scientific Method
1. Define the problem
This is based on observation — either something you’ve observed from nature or from something that’s already been written. How many times have you seen something or read about something and thought up a question about it? If you have, then you’ve done the first step of the Scientific Method!
2. Develop Hypothesis
Propose an explanation for the observed phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be a good hypothesis, it must be testable. In other words, anyone must be able to test it to see if it’s supported or unsupported. Even if a hypothesis is unsupported, it is still ‘good’ if it is testable. There are lots of questions out there that are not testable, such as, “Somewhere on the planet, a pink elephant is dancing the can-can in a tutu.” Because it’s impossible to explore every inch of the world looking for our dancing elephant, this would not be feasibly testable. Along the same lines, a testable hypothesis would be, “Student group A, who have read the material on The Scientific Method, will have a higher average score on their quiz than will Student group B, who have not read the material on The Scientific Method.”
3. Collect Data
The experiment should be specifically designed to test the hypothesis. The experiment will provide data as to whether the hypothesis is supported or not. Experiments must be replicable by other researchers. For our example above with ever-so-fortunate quiz-takers, you’d have Group A read the material (Group B would not) and both groups would take the quiz. This experimental design is replicable by other researchers because they too could find two groups of students and follow the same protocol (students are randomly assigned to a group; one group reads the material, one not, and both take the quiz).
4. Organize/analyze data:
Once the experiment is completed, you must organize the data and analyze the results. For our example, you would grade the quizzes, calculate the average score per group, and analyze the results.
5. Conclusion
You develop a statement that sums up what the data (collected during the experimental phase) says about the hypothesis. For our example, our concluding statement would be something like, “Group A, who read material on The Scientific Method, performed better on a Scientific Method quiz than did Group B, who did not read the material.” If your hypothesis is supported, then you would move on to the next step in the process. If your hypothesis was unsupported, you would rework your hypothesis and start the process over.
6. Share the knowledge
It is important to share the results of your work even (and maybe even especially) if your hypothesis was not supported. Remember — information is only good if it is communicated to others!
Things to keep in mind:
Science does not “prove” anything. Hypotheses are falsified/unsupported or not falsified/supported. For a hypothesis to be accepted as a theory, it undergoes rigorous testing (Larsen 2008: 16). It can take decades for a hypothesis to become a theory. For this reason, it is important to differentiate between theory within the sciences and theory in colloquial use. In the latter, theories are equated to guesses that may or may not be based on any data and are often said to be ‘just a theory.’ It is inaccurate (and we might even say it is insulting) to think a theory in science is “just a theory.” That manner of thought trivializes all the research that went into the development of the scientific theory.
Unfortunately, there is a practice both within and outside the academy, to use the term theory interchangeably with hypothesis. It is up to you to determine if the “theory” referred to is in fact a scientific theory or a hypothesis. While we discuss various topics in anthropology it is important to keep these distinctions in mind. We will encounter situations where there are multiple hypotheses or theories proposed to explain a phenomenon. Contradictory supported hypotheses are possible; some refer to this as equifinality. This is not necessarily a bad thing. It simply means that the data collected supports two (or more) hypotheses — in most cases, there is not sufficient data available to support one more than the other (especially when we get to the information within human evolution). Some who do not fully understand the scientific process, think this is a bad thing, but equifinality drives further research. So, for the moment we must open our minds to accept two or more potential conclusions.
The Scientific Method in Action!!! Watch the following clip and identify the steps of The Scientific Method. Was their hypothesis testable? Was their experiment replicable? What was the conclusion of their “scientific endeavor”? Clip: The Scientific Method in Action.
Data Collection Methods
Like other scientists, anthropologists are looking for patterns, associations, and repetitions (Park 2014, 32). There are five basic categories of data collection methods that anthropologists employ: 1) material observation, 2) biological observation, 3) behavioral observation, 4) direct communication, and 5) participant observation. Which method is used varies depending on the anthropological field and to some extent the research question asked.
From the previous discussion, it should be clear that experimentation is one data collection method employed by anthropologists, which can fall within several of the basic categories mentioned above, including material observation. Data collection through material observation means that the researcher is collecting data about objects and settings. This method is used across all the fields of anthropology. Cultural anthropologists, archaeologists, and primatologists might look at the tools used by the subjects. Biological anthropologists might observe the local environment. Written records could be observed by linguistic anthropologists, cultural anthropologists, and archaeologists (Park 2014).
Biological observation includes observations of human and primate anatomy, including genetics and physiology. Paleoanthropologists and primatologists look at fossils. Archaeologists and cultural anthropologists examine the food that people consumed, and along with biological anthropologists may investigate pathogens that impact people (Park 2014).
Collecting data on how people and non-human primates adapt to their cultural and natural environments is the purview of behavioral observation. One might be tempted to say that behavioral observation is the end-all-be-all for anthropologists, but it is important to remember that it is simply one method of data collection. Most anthropologists employ multiple data collection techniques (Park 2014).
Direct communication is a data collection method that is common in the social sciences. Anthropologists in the field prefer to work with informants, people who supply information about the study group. During conversations with informants, anthropologists learn about emic, or insider, perspectives. Data collected in this manner can help the anthropologist to narrow their research and even develop new research questions. Surveys, questionnaires, interviews, and focus groups are other types of direct communication data collection techniques (Park 2014).
The final type of data collection methods is a cornerstone of anthropology—participant observation. Pioneered by Branislaw Malinowski during his research among the Trobriand Islanders in the early to mid-20th-century, participant observation requires the researcher to live with the research group to not only observe the group but to participate in activities. Through this participation, the goal is to gather data on the emic perspective to better understand why behaviors are practiced. This method does not preclude the use of other types of data collection. Indeed, using multiple data collection techniques can provide a richer interpretation of human behavior. No matter which data collection technique is employed, it is vital to obtain informed consent from the study participants.
Ethics and Anthropological Research
Informed consent is not only an ethical but legal concern when conducting human subject research. Potential participants must:
- be provided with sufficient information to make an informed choice about their participation,
- give consent voluntarily, and
- be competent to make a decision about involvement in the research (Informed Consent 2018, 1146).
This includes ensuring potential subjects understand any risks and benefits that might be involved through their participation. The researcher needs to make it explicit how the data is going to be used and how privacy is going to be maintained. The subjects also need to be informed that they can withdraw from the study at any time. In other words, researchers need to make full disclosure in order to protect the rights and dignity of their research subjects. For anthropologists, this often entails engaging interpreters to help with either verbally conveying the information or transcribing the details into local languages. Anthropologists often record informed consent so that there are no problems later.
What constitutes “good research”?
Clarity and ethics are two things that comprise good research. The purpose and question(s) need to be clearly defined so that the audience understands. The research process also needs to be planned and explained well. Bouchrika on Research.com lays out the “Top 10 Qualities of Good Academic Research.” It’s worth a look. George Washington University provides a guide for “15 Steps to Good Research.” Much of the information on these two sites relates to original research, but the basic ideas apply to research at the undergraduate level even though the research you conduct will be primarily literature research (also called a literature review or lit search). Most, but not all, undergraduate research projects require you to develop a question and then research what answers other people have developed. This is not a bad thing. In fact, all original research starts with a lit search because we want to see if and what other people have done to address the question. This helps to prevent plagiarism. The Purdue Online Writing Lab has a good overview about writing a literature review. WikiHow has advice on how to do a lit search. If you read nothing else, read that.
What does it mean to conduct ethical research?
Nothing can ruin an academic or research career faster than unethical practices. But what does this mean? While there are discipline-specific ethical standards, there are some general qualities to ethical research (Reznick 2017):
Honesty
Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, research sponsors, or the public.
Objectivity
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research.
Integrity
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action.
Carefulness
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.
Openness
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
Responsible Publication
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to just advance your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
Responsible Mentoring
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.
Respect for colleagues
Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
Social Responsibility
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors not related to scientific competence and integrity.
Competence
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.
Legality
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
Animal Care
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
Human Subjects Protection
When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.
Anthropology has its own ethical charter. You can read the complete statement by the American Anthropological Association, but in sum it states that anthropologists must be cognizant of power differentials among all of the players in research, funding agencies, government officials, academic officials, as well as the researcher and subjects. We must carefully weigh the consequences of our decisions. Specifically, anthropologists must:
- do no harm
- be open and honest about our work
- obtain informed consent and necessary permissions
- consider competing ethical considerations and all affected parties
- make our results accessible
- protect and preserve our records
- be respectful and ethical in all professional relationships.
References
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