As teachers, we have the incredible responsibility and honor of teaching and caring for children in our classrooms and building intentional relationships with their families. Early childhood is a time where children are learning their numbers and letters. But it is also a time when children are developing their own personal identities and learning about social identities. These personal and social identities are influenced by the cultural beliefs and the values of their family, their classrooms, and society.

Diversity is defined by the NAEYC as:

A variation among individuals, as well as within and across groups of individuals, in terms of their backgrounds and lived experiences. These experiences are related to social identities, including race, ethnicity, language, sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, social and economic status, religion, ability status, and country of origin. (2019, p. 17)

Diversity is the differences among people, and it is a term that refers to all people and not just to some people (Derman-Sparks et al., 2023).

This definition of diversity shifts our focus from merely acknowledging differences to recognizing the significance these differences have had on shaping individuals’ experiences. In this section, we will learn that diversity is not just appreciating and acknowledging differences, it is actively reflecting on our own experiences and identities and how they influence and impact our teaching. This definition specifically highlights the experiences that people have based on differences.

In this chapter, the variations among individuals are referred to as social identities. Social identities are categories that have been socially constructed. For example, a social identity might be a child who identifies with a specific religion or ethnic group . This term, socially constructed, means that these categories were established by societal norms, beliefs, and practices. These socially constructed categories carry significant implications for individuals’ lives, influencing their opportunities, experiences, and interactions within society (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017).

How might opportunities or experiences differ for a child whose social identity includes that she uses a wheelchair?  Understanding social construction allows us to recognize that many aspects of our social reality are not fixed or objective but are instead influenced by historical, cultural, and societal factors. Social construction highlights the power dynamics and inequalities inherent in social systems and emphasizes the importance of critically examining and challenging dominant narratives and structures to promote social justice and equity (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017).

Following are definitions of some social identity groups.

• Race is a social-political construct that categorizes and ranks groups of human beings on the basis of skin color and other physical features (NAEYC, 2019).
• Ethnicity refers to “people bound by a common language, culture and spiritual traditions, and/or ancestry” (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017, p. 45).
• Sex is the biological or genetic markers that distinguish male and female bodies and refers to one’s genitals, body structure, and is assigned at birth (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017).
• Gender is the assigned sex given at birth that has prescribed roles and behaviors and expectations. Gender identity is the development of one’s self as a male or female in relations to others. Gender expression is the gender that a person presents to the world (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017).
• Sexual orientation is whom a person is sexually attracted to (Derman-Sparks et al., 2020).
• Social and economic status refers to the financial and social conditions of a person, which determines their access to the institutions and resources of society (Derman-Sparks et al, 2020).
• Religion refers to faith and worship in a particular system of beliefs.
  • Ability status includes the ability that children have to do something. It acknowledges disabilities including physical, cognitive, emotional, or neurodivergent challenges that impact a person’s abilities in some areas of daily living and learning (Derman-Sparks et al., 2020; NAEYC, 2019).

These are just the primary social identities or social groups. We could include language, citizenship/nationality, and family structure as well. The social groups we are born into or become a part of later in life are shaped by social interactions, cultural norms, and societal structures (institutions such as education and systems such as the family. These social groups influence how we are perceived by others and are one way we know how to  navigate social relationships and systems.

These institutions and systems shape our perceptions of ourselves and others based on characteristics such as race, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, class, religion, and nationality. Social identities–a child who is male and Latino, for example–play a significant role in shaping individuals’ experiences, opportunities, and access to resources within society (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017).

Social identity categories have been created and perpetuated by society and are influenced by factors such as culture, history, politics, and social norms (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). While individuals may have agency in how they identify within these categories, the creation and reinforcement of social identity categories primarily occurs within broader societal contexts. (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017).

We learn about social identity and what a group is by also learning about what it is not (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). Historically, many social identity categories have been considered binary. For instance, individuals were often categorized as either male or female, or as either White or a person of color. However, we now understand that this is an oversimplification. These social categories are not binary; they exist along spectrums. For example, gender identity can vary along a continuum throughout one’s life.

In addition, race, as a social construct is subject to changes in societal usage and individual interpretation over time. We have children who identify as biracial and embrace multiple social groups. It is crucial to recognize that these categories are nuanced and have sometimes been used in ways that stigmatize rather than foster positive connections with one’s identity.

Think about the differences between social identities and personal identities. Personal identities are the unique characteristics, traits, experiences, and attributes that define an individual as a unique person (Derman-Sparks et al, 2020). These aspects of identity are deeply personal and can include factors such as personality traits, talents, interests, values, beliefs, and life experiences. Personal identities are shaped by individual experiences, choices, and self-perceptions. They contribute to an individual’s sense of self and personal identity, influencing how they see themselves and how they see and navigate the world around them. You learned about personal identities in the children’s development chapter.

When we focus on personal identities it can oversimplify the impact of social identities. We need to recognize the complexity and diversity of individual identities while also acknowledging the systemic barriers and inequalities that exist based on social group membership. By valuing and respecting individuals’ personal identities while also challenging societal norms and prejudices associated with social identities, we can work towards creating a more just and equitable classroom and society for all.

Culture and the Cycle of Socialization

Culture plays a central role in shaping individuals’ social identities by providing frameworks for understanding, interpreting, and expressing identity within the context of broader societal and cultural norms. Culture is closely connected to social identities and plays a significant role in shaping how individuals perceive themselves and are perceived by others.

Culture refers to the experiences, language, values, and beliefs that people share at a given time and place. Our cultural ways of being can be as simple and visible as what we have learned to like to eat or what we don’t like to eat. Culture can also be the words we use, language we speak, how we dress, and what music we like to listen to.

Culture is also complex and invisible. It is the deeply held beliefs and values we have that influence the daily decisions we make. These beliefs can be about what eye contact should look like, or what kind of touching is acceptable. Culture also refers to relationships with our elders, the way we raise our children, and what role families should play in our lives. There is a lot under the surface that we have learned, and that we are not aware of. Those cultural ways of being become automatic.

Ultimately, culture shapes and frames how we understand, view, and interact with the world around us. Also, what we learn depends on what cultural and social groups we belong to. Culture acts as a lens through which we understand and make sense of our surroundings. Our cultural backgrounds, including the social groups we belong to, shape our perspectives, beliefs, values, and behaviors. What we learn, how we learn it, and what knowledge is considered important or relevant are all influenced by the cultural and social contexts in which we exist.

In essence, our cultural and social identities play a crucial role in shaping our worldview and guiding our experiences and interactions within society. For example, it is possible to learn a new culture by moving to a new country or by a change in our economic status, or by having a disability. We all belong to many cultural and social groups. When we have similar culture with others, we usually get along better with or feel more comfortable with them (Derman-Sparks et al., 2020).

We are socialized into cultural ways of knowing and acting based on the cultural and social identity groups we are a part of. This means that we learn and adopt specific cultural norms, values, and behaviors based on the cultural and social groups we belong to. These norms and behaviors are ingrained through socialization processes that occur within society. This process is deeply rooted within social systems and structures, shaping our identities and perspectives in profound ways (Harro, 2018).

Socialization is the process where we internalize the cultural norms and ideologies of society.  We have learned these norms and ideologies through the institutions we interact with, for example, education, church, peers, family, laws, media, business, and so on. Harro (2018) suggests that based on each of our social identities, we learn how to:

• think about ourselves and others.
• interact with others.
• understand what is expected of us based on a specific set of social identities we were born into.
• know what the consequences are if we deviate from what is expected of us.

These social identities that we have been assigned to, born into, or become a part of later in life predispose us into unequal roles (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). We are socialized into these roles both subtly and overtly by our family and various institutions, including schools, media, religious institutions, and workplaces. These roles are enforced through systematic training that dictates the “appropriate and acceptable ways to be” within that identity, as outlined by Harro (2018).

In the United States, the appropriate and acceptable ways to behave come from the dominant social groups. The dominant social groups are men, White people, able-bodied neurotypical people, middle to upper class people, cisgendered, heterosexuals, English speaking, and middle-aged people. Subordinate or marginalized groups are: women; people of color (specifically historically racially oppressed groups); gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender people; people with a disability; seniors and youth; and people living in poverty.

Understanding the socialization process and our connection with various groups will enhance our understanding of the values and beliefs we have internalized, as well as our perceptions of groups to which we do not belong.

Through culture we acquire knowledge of and ideas about social identities and their implications. In the context of early childhood education, NAEYC’s Advancing Equity definition acknowledges the impact of these categorizations and connection to dominant social identities and how we have been and are socialized. The NAEYC diversity definition underscores that terms like diverse and diversity are sometimes used as substitutes for non-White, a usage rejected by NAEYC. This rejection challenges the notion that Whiteness represents the norm against which diversity is measured (NAEYC, 2019, p.17). This specific clarification serves as a reminder of the social construction of race and other social identities, as well as the meanings attributed to them by their creators, the dominant social groups. It also highlights the harm inflicted upon individuals who do not belong to the dominant social groups and the cultural rules that those who may belong must follow.

For some children in early childhood the sex and gender roles that are expected of them is not what they identify with and how they want to express themselves. However, through the cycle of socialization, other children, families, teachers, and schools, enforce specific roles on children (Derman-Sparks et al., 2020). An example of the socialization process and how it creates exclusion can be demonstrated when we examine biological sex, gender identity and expression before and immediately after a child is born.

When someone is expecting a child, they are often asked about the baby’s sex, whether it will be a boy or a girl. Based on this information, people may begin to think about names typically associated with boys or girls, as well as consider which toys and clothes are appropriate. Before the baby is born they are already categorized. After the baby is born, interactions with the child often involve conscious or unconscious expectations regarding their gender identity, behavior and appearance. For instance, girls may be encouraged to speak softly and avoid physical play, while being complimented on their appearance in dresses. Conversely, boys may be discouraged from crying and encouraged to demonstrate physical and emotional strength. While for some children their sex assignment aligns with their gender identity and expression preferences, for others that may not be the case. Therefore the cycle of socialization can enforce cultural norms that do not allow the child to fully express themselves.

Our cultural norms and values and ways of being are already established when a child is born. These norms might include whether we expect a child to look us in the eyes when we speak to them, or expecting a child to eat with utensils and not with their hands. These rules, roles, and assumptions were created by the dominant groups and marginalized or subordinate groups were essentially exploited, disenfranchised, and discriminated against if they did follow them (Harro, 2018). Through this cycle, society has normalized the dominant groups’ cultural values, beliefs, and ways of being at the expense of the subordinate groups. This leads to implicit and explicit biases regarding other social identity groups, which we will explore further to understand its influence on our interactions and expectations of children and families. Remember that personal identities may sometimes conflict with social identities, creating internal tension or discomfort for individuals. Knowing this can navigate our sense of self, fostering greater self-awareness and authenticity without minimizing the impact of societal expectations.

Bias

An integral part of our work with children and families is reflecting on diversity and culture, and  learning about our socialization into the groups that we are part of and not a part of. Equally as important is addressing bias. We define bias as the attitudes that favor one group over another (NAEYC, 2019). Blindspots are hidden biases that are bits of knowledge about social groups (Banaji & Greenwald, 2013). This information becomes stored in our brains because we receive messages frequently from our cultural environments about others who are not part of our social groups (Banaji & Greenwald, 2013; Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). Biases are inherent in all of us and are acquired through our cultural upbringing and the process of socialization. Once embedded in our consciousness, these hidden biases can shape our interactions with members of specific social groups, yet we may remain unaware of their impact. Explicit biases are conscious, biases that we are openly aware of. These explicit biases are beliefs and stereotypes that influence our understanding, actions, and decisions. Implicit bias affects one’s understanding, actions, and decisions but is unconscious. (NAEYC, 2019).

Explicit biases can perpetuate negative stereotypes and prejudices about certain social groups. An example of explicit bias in the classroom may happen when we openly expect children from specific racial groups to be good at sports or to be quiet and shy. Implicit biases (biases we don’t know we have) are automatic and will influence perceptions, judgments, and behaviors in subtle ways, even when individuals consciously work toward being unbiased. For example, if we tell a girl that they look pretty today in their new dress, we teach that dresses are not just for girls. Another explicit bias would be if a teacher was surprised when a child who does not speak English is able to write their name in English. This is an explicit bias because we thought if you can’t speak English it would be hard to write in English.

Implicit biases may be unconscious to the offender but are often obvious to the victim and may have deep and lasting effects (Iruka et al., 2020). Implicit biases can contribute to disparities in access to resources, opportunities, and services across different social groups. This can perpetuate existing inequalities and widen the gap between different social and cultural groups. An example of systemic or institutionalized bias (implicit bias that is ingrained in the institution) in the classroom may be where the lead teachers and supervisors are White, but the assistants and support staff are people of color or English language learners. Another way that systemic bias can present itself in our classrooms would be when all but one or two books have illustrations with only White children and families in them.

Later in this chapter we will learn more about how implicit biases can lead to discriminatory actions or decisions in early childhood based on factors such as race, gender, age, or other social identities. This can result in unequal treatment for certain children or groups (Gillam, 2005). We will also examine how implicit biases can limit opportunities for advancement, growth, and success for children who are perceived as different or outside the dominant social groups. This can impact educational attainment and overall well-being (Milner, 2012).

These biases are learned from messages we receive about others from our own cultural environments through the cycle of socialization. Therefore, we also have the potential to unlearn them once we know we have them. One way we can unlearn these biases is by using an anti-bias approach, which we will talk more about this later in the chapter.

Oppression and Privilege

When we reflect on which groups we belong to and learn more about ourselves and others through the cycle of socialization, we also begin to recognize how we may develop biases that influence how we interact and engage with others. Prejudice means we have prejudgments towards people from other social groups that we do not belong to. Discrimination refers to actions that are based on prejudices we have (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). When left unchecked, bias, prejudices, and discrimination can lead to privilege and oppression.

We will experience privilege and oppression based on the social identity groups we belong to. Privilege is the unearned advantages that result from being a member of a dominant social identity group (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). This type of privilege is deeply embedded, and it is often invisible to those who experience it without ongoing deep self-reflection about diversity and equity. An example of this privilege can be the language we use in our programs. If your program is an English-speaking program, and if you speak English it will be easier for you to communicate. Because of your ability to speak English you have access to resources and services that others who do not speak English do not have access to. If you do not speak English and there are no other languages spoken in the program, then you may struggle with communicating with others.

Oppression is the systematic and prolonged mistreatment of a group of people that results from systemic bias based on their social identity groups (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). For example, ableism is a systemic form of oppression deeply embedded in society that devalues disabilities through structures that are based on implicit assumptions about standards of physical, intellectual, and emotional normalcy (Derman-Sparks et al., 2020). If we are an able-bodied person, we might not think about making sure our classroom is set up for a child who uses a wheelchair, or a family member who uses a scooter. It may be harder to find tables for children that allow a wheelchair to slide under. If you do find one, they may be more expensive. When we have not experienced the challenges of a person with a physical disability, the changes needed to adjust our classroom do not come to us as quickly. These changes come to us when we have to make those changes because we have a child or family member who uses a wheelchair or scooter.

However, those of us who have privilege can experience challenges, and those of us who have been oppressed can experience advantages. When we become more aware of the biases we have and the privileges and systemic oppressions we have experienced, we can better understand the inherent oppression and privileges built into our system that are automatic. Increased awareness allows for a deeper understanding of the systems that perpetuate both oppression and privilege within society. As we recognize these dynamics in our own experiences and empathize with others facing similar situations, we can actively resist and adapt our teaching approaches to better address privileges and oppressions in our classrooms and education system.

The establishment of the first public school in the United States reflected the values and norms of the dominant group at the time. They were created by White colonizers to assimilate and acculturate early European settler/immigrant populations and Indigenous children (Sykes & Ostendorf, 2022). Our earlier education system also prohibited by law educating enslaved or free Black people. We have inherited an education system that had a narrow focus on what education should be. As early childhood educators we are tasked with preparing or supporting early learners for the public school system. If we take the responsibility to learn about and become more aware and conscious of whose norms and values we have learned, internalized, and in turn are teaching from in our own classrooms, we can begin to reflect on the changes we need to make.

When we reflect, assess, and re-evaluate and change how we teach children, we can be anti-bias and anti-oppression In order to be culturally responsive, we have to know what cultural values and beliefs we have and are teaching from. Again, diversity is not just appreciating and acknowledging differences, it is actively reflecting on our own experiences and identities and how they influence and impact how we are teaching.

NAEYC Advancing Equity Recommendation

Throughout this chapter, we draw on the Advancing Equity in Early Childhood Education (2019) statement recommendations for actionable steps and measures we can implement as we delve into the topics of diversity, equity, and inclusion.

With this deeper knowledge of what diversity really means, the first recommendation from the Advancing Equity in Early Childhood Education statement (NAEYC, 2019) is to examine the impact and the influence of diversity on who we are as teachers and what and how we teach. This first recommendation suggests that we recognize that we all hold some bias based on our personal background and experiences and socialization. We need to “identify where our varied social identities have provided strengths and understandings based on your experiences of both injustices and privilege” (p. 6). Knowing which values, beliefs, and cultural norms we hold that influence our teaching will help us reflect on the impact we have on children and families that do not have the same values and beliefs. In addition to identifying our biases , we also must be anti-bias and actively fight bias.

As we deepen our understanding of diversity, let’s reflect on this first recommendation (NAEYC, 2019). It urges us to explore how diversity shapes our identities as educators and influences our teaching methods. It is essential to develop awareness and understanding of our own cultural backgrounds, personal beliefs, values, and biases. This entails reflecting on our lived experiences through the lens of our social identities (NAEYC, 2019).

Attributions

1. Figure 5.1: image released under the Pexels License